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The Tribes and bastes of Bengal.

H. H. Risley.

The Tribes jnb pastes of Bengal

H. H, Risley.

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THE LIBRARY

class . 301 ^ 54 !

BOOK “R494

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Official edition , circulated for criticism.

THE

TRIBES and CASTES of BENGAL.

By H. H. RISLEY’,

INDIAN CIVIL 8BBVICE, COMPANION OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE,
OFFICIEB d’aCAJD£mIB FBAN^AISB.

ETHNOGRAPHIC GLOSSARY.

Vol. II.

rfc iroOev eh avBp&v ; rode roe w oXt? rjSe rofcrje? ;

ODTB8BT i, 170.

CALCUTTA:

fkinteb at the glrngal Secretariat tpreas.

1892.

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TO THB MEMORY OF

$r. James S&ise,

80MB TIMB CIVIL 8URGB0N OF DAOCA,

THIS VOLUME,

EMBODYING IN FART THB RB8ULT8 OF HIS RB8BABCHE8 DURING THIRTBBN
YBAR8* RB8IDBNCB IN BASTBBN BBNGAL,

18 DBDICATBD.

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LAB.

LAHEBI.

L&b, a title of Baniyds, of
the Khandiwdr sub-caste of Bais
Baniyds and of the Oswal Baniyds
in Behar.

L&bar, a gdin of the Sdndilya
gotra of the Uttar-Bdrendra
Brahmans in Bengal.

Labnagar Kumet, a section
of the Majraut sub-caste of God-
Ids in Behar.

Lachh, a section of Rautids in
Chota Nagpur.

Ladil&i a section of Bdbhans
in Behar.

Ladu, a sub-section of the
Kautsasa section of Utkal
Brahmans in Orissa.

Ldek, a section of Utkal or
Orissa Brahmans.

Lagdingpd, a rut or sept of
the Bedtshan-gye sub-tribe of
Dejong Lhoris or Bhotias of the
south.

Lagmetd, a mul or section of
the Naomulid or Majraut sub-
caste of Godlds in Behar.

Lagori, a sept of Hos in Sing-
bhum.

L&hd, a title of the Desd sub-
caste of Gandhabaniks ; of
Mayards, Kaibarttas, and of
Subamabaniks in Bengal.

Ldhdgot, a mul or section of
the Naomulid or Gorid sub-caste
of Godlas in Behar.

Lahakpd, a thar or sept of
Mangars in Darjiling.

Laharvid» a section of Godlds
in the North-Western Provinoes
and Behar.

Lahati, a seotion of Newars in
Darjiling.

La her, a sub-sept of the Hem-
rom and Mdmdi septs of Santdls.

Laherdy a synonym for Ldheri.

Ldheri, a group of the Bdren-
(lra Godlds in Bengal.

Ldheri, a gdin of the Sdndilya
gotra and a title of Bdrendra
Brahmans in Bengal.

Laherdy a Behar caste engaged in the manufacture and
sale of lac bangles ( Idh kd churi). The group
and internal ^ ppo^jy a functional one, consisting of

members of several different castes who hap-
pened to adopt that particular profession. In Behar it is divided
into two sub-castes — Dakhinhd and Tirhutid — residing respectively
north and south of the Ganges. There are two sections, — Kdsi and
Mahurid. Prohibited degrees are reckoned by the standard formula
calculated to seven generations in the descending line.

Laheris admit both infant and adult-marriage, but regard the
former praotioe as the more respectable. The
Marnage * oeremony is of the standard type, but no tilak

is paid to the parents of the bridegroom. Polygamy is resorted to
only in the event of the first wife proving barren. Widows are
allowed to marry again by the sagai form. In suoh cases it is
deemed right and proper for a woman to many her late husband’s
younger brother if one has survived him, out she is under no
positive obligation to do so. A faithless wife oan be divorced by
establishing ner guilt before a panchdyat. If, however, the offenoe

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LAHKRT.

has been committed with a member of the oaste, it is usually
condoned on payment of a fine in the form of a feast riven to the
heads of the caste. Adultery with an outsider involves instant
expulsion from the community.

In deciding questions of inheritance and succession the caste
profess to be guided by the Mit£kshar&, which
sian &<*. 1B pergonaJ ] aw of most Hindus in Behar.
Disputes, however, rarely go beyond the panch&yat, a highly
primitive tribunal, which cannot be credited with very precise
Knowledge of the written law. To this circumstance, no doubt, we
owe the preservation among their scanty customs of the usage
known in the Panj&b as chunddvand , by which the sons, however
few, of one wife take a share equal to that of the sons, however
many, of another. In applying this rule no distinction is drawn
between the status of the wives, and the sons of a wife married by
the sagai form get the same share as the sons of a woman who was
married as a virgin by the regular oeremony.

Laheris consider themselves to be orthodox Hindus, and regard
Bhagavati as the deity whom they are more
6 lglon * especially bound to worship. Tirhutid Brah-

mans serve them as priests, and do not suffer in social esteem by so
doing. Their functions, however, extend only to attendance at
marriages and watching over the observances due to the greater

S ods of the Hindu Pantheon. The minor deities, Bandi and
taraiyi, are worshipped by the heads of families themselves without
the assistance of Brahmans. Goats, wheaten cakes, milk, and sweet-
meats form the usual offerings, whioh are afterwards eaten by the
members of the household.

In point of social standing the Laheris rank with Koiris and
Kurmis, and Brahmans will take water from
pation^ 8tatUS and ° ocu ' their hands. Besides their original occupation
of making lao bracelets, many of them are
engaged in cultivation as occupanoy raiyats. As a rule, however,
they will not guide the plough with their own hands, and none of
them are found in the lower grades of the agricultural system.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of
the Laheri oaste in 1872 and 1881 : —

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LAH-OOTA.

LALBEGI.

Lah-ogpfi, dwelling below la
or mountain- top or pass ; a mi or
sept of the Ruichhung sub-tribe
of Dejong Lhoris or Bhotias of the
south.

Lahoni, a thar or section of
Nepili Brahmans.

Lahtaur, a sept of RAjputs in
Behar.

L&huliA, a sept of RAjputs in
Behar.

Lfiik, a title of Telis and
MayarAs in Bengal.

Laiy&l, a thar or section of I
Nepali Brahmans.

Lakdndriy a thar or sept of
Mangars in Darjiling.

LakargarhA, a sub-caste of
Sunris in Manbhum.

Ldkat, a sept of RAjputs in
Behar.

LakhansariA, a section of
MadhesiA HalwAis in Behax.

Lakhaurid, a division of
Brahmans in Behar.

Lakhauri&r, a section of
KAyasths in Behar.

Lakhiputra, a synonym for
Doai.

Lakhnaud, a section of the
BanodhiA and JaiswAr KalwArs
in Behar.

Lakhotia, a section of Mahes-
ris in Behar.

Lakhsarid, a section of BhAts.

Lakrihdr, a section of Bans*
phor Doms in Western Behar.

Laksha, a gdin of the BAtsya
gotra of BArendra Brahmans in
Bengal.

Laksham Serid, a section of
the Biyahut and KharidAhA
KalwArs in Behar.

Lakshan or Saranbanda, a class
of SannyAsis or Fakirs.

Lakshanpurid, a mul or sec-
tion of the Naomulid or Majraut
sub-caste of GoAlAs in Behar.

Laktomdhdng, a sept of
Limbus in Darjiling.

Lakwdr, a section of the
Maghayd sub-caste of Barhis in
Behar.

Ldl, Ldla, a title of Kdyasths,
Khatris, of the Banodhifi sub-caste
of Kalwdrs and Sunris in Behar.

L&l& t a synonym for Kdyasth
in Behar.

Ldlbegi, a class of Mahomedan sweepers supposed to have
oome from^ Upper India, some with sepoy regiments, others as
wanderers in search of work. Though styled Mahomedans, they
neither practise circumoision nor abstain from pork. The Lalbegi
are employed as sweepers in European households, and are always
addressed as jama’dar by the other servants.

They eat the leavings of Europeans, and drink any sort of wine
or spirits. They will not, however, eat with the Raut, who in their
turn pride themselves on abstaining from food thathas come from
a European table. Nor will they touoh a dead body,
if i re ^£i° U8 rites of the Lalbegi are partly Hindu, partly
Muhammadan. As with Mussulmans generally, marriages are
arranged by an old woman who acts as match- maker. No kabin
or marriage settlement is drawn up, but an ikrar or bond is executed,
in which both promise to love one another, and the bridegroom
undertakes not to bring a seoond wife into his house. Previous to
the wedding day the Khanduri ceremony is observed, as well as
other Muh a m madan oustoms, but the services of the Ach&rji Brahman

a 2

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LALBEGI.

LAMGORIX.

are not required. Should the marriage be celebrated in the bride-
groom’s house, a fee of twenty annas is paid to the panch&yat ; if in
the bride’s, only five annas.

A few of the Lalbegi keep the fast of Ramaz&n, although they
dare not enter a publio mosque.

Their funeral ceremonies are peculiar. The dead may not be
buried in a Mussulman cemetery, but are consigned to the ground
in some waste and jungly spot. The oorpse is wrapped in five
shrouds, a handkerohief is placed under each arm and in each hand,
a kaadtcd or napkin is bound round the head, and a khirqd or
blouse is put on the body. After the grave has been filled in,
a doth cover (phul ka chadar) is laid over it, while four pieoes of
“ Agar ” wood are inserted at the oorners and set fire to. The rest
of tne funeral ceremonies are strictly Mahomedan. For four days
after a death a fire is not allowed to be lighted in the dwelling-house
of the deoeased, the family in the meantime receiving food from
their neighbours; but on the fifth day a tray laden with betel-nuts
and adorned with flowers is placed in front of the hut, and a feast is
given to the whole tribe.

The Lalbegis follow many Hindu customs, observing the
Diw&li and the Holl as the greatest festivals of the year. On these
occasions a mud image of a mosque with five domes is made,
supposed to be a model of one still existing at Ghazni, in Kibul,
which belonged to Lai Beg, the eponymous ancestor of the tribe.
In front of the image a cock is sacrificed, and offerings of
pilaOy sherbet , and sweetmeats are made in his name. Lil Beg is
identified by Sir H. Elliot 1 with L&l Guru, the same as the
Eakshasa AronAkarat ; but in Benares 2 he is confounded with Pir
Zahr, perhaps the famous Chishtfya saint Sayyfd Shah Zuhfir. In
the PanjAb, again, Mihtars adore LAI Pir, or Bab4 Faqir, as
the dyers do Pir ’All Rangrez, and the blacksmiths Hazrat Dafid.
It seems not improbable, therefore, that the Lalbegi, like many
ether tribes converted to Mahomedanism, have adopted a Maho-
medan saint as their common ancestor.

L&l-Ch&t&i, asub-group of Hele
Kaibarttas in Central Bengal.

L&l-G&mia, a group of theMih-
tar sub-caste of Telis in Behar.

L&l-Go&ld, a hypergamous
group of Go&lds in Eastern Bengal.

Lalihar, a bird, a totemistio
sept of Lohars in Chota Nagpur.

L&ma, a thar or sept of
Gurungs in Darjiling.

L&mfi Khor, a section of Mur-
mis in Darjiling.

Lamamaka, a sept of Hos in
Singbhum.

L&mbfi, a section ot GoAl&s in
the North-Western Provinces and
Behar.

Lambacha, a sept of theTung-
jainya sub-tribe of Chakm&s in
the Hill Tracts of Chittagong.

L&mg&de, Lamgadeh, a sec-
tion of K&mis and a thar or sept
of Mangars in Darjiling.

LamgoriA, a section of fc B4-
| bhans in Behar.

1 Supplemental Glossary , i, 32.

3 Sherring, Hindu Tribes of Benares, p. 397.

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LXMI CHHANYA.

LATIHAR.

L&mi Chhanya, a thar or sept
of Gurungs and Man gars in Dar-
jiling.

LamjAl, a thar or sept of
Mang&rs in Darjiling.

LampochhA, a sept of the
Bautar sub-tribe of Thdrus in
Behar.

Lamsani T ongi f a thar or sept
of the Das-Gurung sub-tribe of
Gurungs in Darjiling. It was
separated from its parent thar, the
Lehbo Lamsani.

Lang, a kind of bird, a totem-
istio sept of Muudas in Chota
Nagpur.

LAng Chenre, a section of
the Mahili-Munda sub-oaste of
Mahilis in Chota Nagpur.

LangjharAjhari, a mul or sec-
tion of Kesarwdni Baniyds in
Behar.

LangsAI or LamsAI, a thar of
the Bachh gotra of Nepali
Brahmans.

Laoti, he who was obeyed, a
sept of the Pdnthar sub-tribe of
limbus in Darjiling.

LAphaunchhA, a thar or sept
of Khambus in Darjiling.

LApung, a small bird, a totem--
istic sept of Mundas in Chota
Nagpur.

LarapA, monkey-eater, a sept
of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Larauni, a mul or section of
the Chhamulia Madheeii sub-caste
of Halwdis in Behar.

Larhora or Purbdl Mehter ,
a sub-caste of Dorns in Behar who
reverenoe Supat Bhagat, a devotee
whom they believe to be the
purka or founder of their sub-
oaste. They make baskets and
remove filth.

Lari i a sub-caste of GoAlds in
Chota Nagpur.

Larka, the fighters, a title of
the Ho tribe in Singbhum.

Lark or, a title of Jaunpuri
Chamdrs in Behar whose women
act as midwives.

Larma, a sept of Chakmds in
the Hill Traots of Chittagong.,

Larsunar, a sept of Mundas in
Chota Nagpur,

Lartangar, a mul or section of
the Kanaujid sub-caste of Sondrs
in Behar.

LAruli, a gdin of the Bharad-
wdja gotra of Bdrendra Brah-
mans in Bengal.

LarwAr, a dih or exogamous
section of the Gharbait sub-caste
of Arndts in Behar.

LarwariA, a section of Bdb-
hans in Behar.

Laskar, a title of Pods in
Bengal.

LAt, a sub-sept of the Kisku,
Saren, and Tudu septs of Santdls,
whose ancestor baked meat in a
leaf platter.

Latd-baidya, a synonym for
Bdrui.

LatA Punra, a section of
Pundarik or Pundas, so oalled
from their selling vegetables
grown from latd or creeper.

LAter, a sub-tribe of Dhirndls
in the Darjiling Terai.

Lathaur, a sub-caste of Telia
in Behar, a section of Bajwdrs
and Rautids in Chota Nagpur.

Latihar, a variant for LAheri
or ChurihAr, who manufacture
lao bracelets or churn .

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LEPCHA.

L^lU.

Lau f a sub-section of the
Hirita section of Utkal Brah-
mans in Or issa .

Laugi, a title of N6gars in
Behar.

Lauki, a title of Hindu Jo-
l&has in Behar.

Launeijarhud, a mul or sec-
tion of the Satmulii or Kishnaut
sub-caste of Go&l£s in Behar.

Lauridi a seotion of Godlds in
Behar.

Lautni, a sept of Bdjputs in
Behar,

Ldwdpur, a section of Maj-
raut Godlds in Behar.

Ldyd , a synonym for Maulik.

Leba, a sept of Chakm&s in
the Hill Tracts of Chittagong.

Lechenche, the dissolute one,
a sept of the Yangorup sub-tribe
of Limbus in Darjiling.

Legbahang, a sept of the
Tambrkhola sub-tribe of Limbus
in Darjiling.

Legma, the worker in mud,
a sept of the Chhothar sub-tribe
of Limbus in Darjiling.

Leh Ldma, a thar or sept of
Gurungs in Darjiling the mem-
bers of which are oalled in to
officiate at the obsequies of the
dead by throwing earth on the
grave, and to read the funeral
prayers.

Lekhogma, he of the swollen
testes, a sept of the Yangorup sub-
tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Lenda, earthworm, a totemistio
sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Leng, a totemistio sept of the
Bhumij tribe in Manbhum, the
members of which will not touch
or eat a mushroom.

Lenkd, a title of Chdsds in
Orissa.

^Ctpcha, Rong , Khamba , Mon , a Mongolian tribe of Sikkim,
Origin. Western Bhutan, Eastern Nepal, and Darji-

ling. They are divided into two branohes —
Rong and Khamba. The former claim to be the original inhabit-
ants of Sikkim, while the Khamba are believed to have immigrated
some 250 years ago from the Kbam province of China, whither
a deputation of Lamas had been sent to choose a ruler for Sikkim.
The Baja selected by them brought with him a number of his own
tribe, who retained the name of their original home as associating
them with the ruling family. The distinction, however, has not
operated as a bar to intermarriage, and the two branches are now
thoroughly amalgamated. Both, in fact, probably come of the same
original stock, and represent two successive migrations of Mongols
into Sikkim.

u -fr* person,” says Dr, Campbell, 1 “ the Lepchas are short,
Physical type. averaging about five feet in height : five feet
. six inches is tall, and four feet eight inohes

is a common stature among the men. The women are shorter in the
usual proportion. The men are bulky for their height, but rather
fleshy than sinewy. The musoular development of their limbs is
inferior to that of the M&g&rs, Gurungs, Murmis, and other

1 Journal qf Ethnological Society of London, vol. I, No. 2.

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LEPCHA.

Parbattiahs. They are very fair of akin, and boys and girls in
health have generally a ruddy tinge of complexion. This is lost,
however, in adolescence, although the fairness continues. The
features are markedly Mongolian, but there is a fulness and
roundness of feature accompanied by a cheerful expression and
laughing eye which renders the faoe a most pleasing one. The
total absence of beard and the fashion of parting the hair along the
crown of the head adds to a somewhat womanly expression of
countenance in the men, and the loose bedgown sort of jacket, with
wide sleeves, which they wear, contributes still more to render it
rather difficult for strangers to distinguish the sexes, especially in
middle age. The men very often look like women, and the women
sometimes like men. The hair is worn long by both sexes; the
younger men allowing it to hang loose over the shoulders, the elders
plaiting it into a tail, which sometimes reaches to the knees. The
women of rank wear their hair in two, and sometimes in three tails,
tying it with braids and silken cords and tassels. The Lepohas, both
male and female, are dirty in person, rarely having recourse to
ablution. In the cold and dry season this renders them unpleasant
inmates of a dose dwelling, but in the rains, when they move about
and are frequently wet, they are clean and sweet. The tempera-
ment of the Lepcha is eminently cheerful, and his disposition really
amiable. In ordinary intercourse they are a very fascinating
people, and possess an amount of intelligence and rational curiosity
not to be met with among their Bhotia, Limbu, Murmi, or Gurung
neighbours, and indeed rarely, if ever, to be seen among people so
completely secluded from foreign intercourse as they always have
been. The marked contrast in these respects between the Lepohas
and the listless, uninquiring natives of the plains renders association
with them a source of much pleasure to Europeans. They are
wonderfully honest, theft being scarcely known among them ; they
rarely quarrel among themselves. I have never known them to
draw their knives on one another, although they always wear them.
Eor ordinary social purposes of talking, eating, and drinking, they
have great unanimity, but for any more important purposes of
resistance to oppression, the pursuit of industry or trade, their con-
fidence in one another is at a low pitch ; they fly bad government
rather than resist it, and used to prefer digging for yams in the
jungle and eating wretchedly innutritions vegetables to enduring
any injustice or harsh treatment. They are singularly forgiving
of injuries, when time is given them, after hasty loss of temper.
Although they were ready enough to lodge complaints before the
Magistrate against one another in cases of assault and other offences,
they rarely prosecuted to a decision, generally preferring to submit
to arbitration or making mutual amends and concessions.”

The internal structure of the tribe, so far as I have been able

_ . ... to ascertain it, is shown in Appendix I. The

ure * subject is most obscure, and Lepohas them-
selves seem unable to throw muoh light upon it. Besides the main
divisions of Rong and Khamba, which, as has been stated above,
have no special bearing on marriage, the Lepohas recognize ten

Digitized by LjOOQLe

LEPCHA

groups, Iwhioh they call than. These appear to have been at one
time exogamous, and the Adinpuso thar is said to be so still. The
rest, however, have lost their exogamous oharacter, and their
members may marry women of their own or of other groups. Two
than, Barphungpuso and Adinpuso, rank higher than the other
eight, and do not permit intermarriage with them. The distinction
is said to arise from the fact that the officials of the Sikkim State are
invariably chosen from these two than, and they probably are the
descendants of the Khamba clansmen who followed the chief from
Tibet. Village headmen (mandate) cure drawn from among the eight
lower than, and these groups represent the main body of oultivatorB
in Sikkim. Members of these than again may intermarry with
Limbus, whioh is forbidden for Barphungpuso and Adinpuso.

The primitive rule of exogamy having thus fallen into disuse,
the Lepchas supply its place by a table of prohibited degrees whioh
does not differ materially from that expressed by the common formula
mamera , chachera , eto., already often referred to. Intermarri-
age is barred only for three generations in the descending line,
except when a mith or adoptive relationship has been entered into,
in whioh case the prohibition is said to extend to nine generations.
The ceremony observed in mith is of the same general character as
among the Murmis, but Lamas, not Brahmans, officiate as priests,
and Tibetan scarves are exchanged as pledges of amity instead of
the rupees used by the Murmis. The wives of the two friends take
part in the oeremony, and are not troubled by the striot etiquette
which among the Nepalese regulates the oonduot of a wife towards
her husband’s dost.

Lepcha girls usually marry between the ages of sixteen and
eighteen. Men marry later owing to the
Marmg0, difficulty of getting together the bride-price,

which ranges from Rs. 40 to Its. 100 according to the rank of the
parties. The freest oourtship is permitted, and sexual license before
marriage is tolerated. If a girl beoomes pregnant, the man is
expeoted either to marry her or to pay some compensation to her
parents for the reduction in value which she has undergone. Formal
proposals of marriage are usually made to the bride’s parents by
pibus or go-betweens acting on behalf of the lover. If the proposal
is accepted, the pibus go to the bride’s house with Rs. 5 as earnest-
money, and ten seers of marud beer and a Tibetan scarf. An
auspioious day for the marriage is then fixed by the Lamas. The
oeremony, performed first at the bride’s and then at the bridegroom’s
house, is of a very simple character. Bride and bridegroom sit
side by side on a carpet, and the Lama ties a silk scarf round the
neok of each and then changes the scarves, so that the bride wears the
bridegroom’s and vice vend. Rice is sprinkled over their heads, they
eat together, and drink marud beer out of the same cup. The pro-
ceedings end with a feast. The married couple spend three days in
the husband’s house, and then usually go on a month’s visit to the
bride’s parents.

"When a man is too poor to pay the bride-prioe, he is often
allowed to many, as it were, on credit ; but the bnde does not leave

Digitized by LjOOQLe

LEPCHA.

her father’s house, and the husband goes to live with her and work
for his father-in-law until the full amount has been made up.

Polyandry, though comparatively rare, is not entirely unknown
among the Lepohas. As might be expected, the Tibetan form of the
custom is followed, and the younger brothers share the favours of
the eldest brother’s wife. Polygamy is permitted, but is not practised
on a large scale.

A widow may marry again, and is subject to no express restric-
tions in her ohoice of a second husband. It is considered, however,
proper for her to marry her late husband’s younger brother, and if
she marries an outsider, this brother-in-law usually keeps the ohildren,
and in any case may olaim repayment of the bride-prioe. The full
ceremony may be employed at the marriage of a widow, but the
parties usually content themselves with the mere announcement by
a Lama that they have become man and wife.

If a married oouple cannot agree, arbitrators (pibus) are appointed
to attempt to adjust their differences. If they fail after two or three
attempts, a formal divorce is effected with the concurrence of the
Lama who married the pair. The wife returns to her father’s house,
and her husband pays some compensation to her parents. When
a woman is taken in adultery, a panoh&yat considers the case and
determines the amount of fine (gysh) to be paid to her husband by
the paramour. The amount of the fine is not fixed by custom, nor
does it bear any stated proportion to the bride-price. Where
adultery is proved, the husband has a right to divorce his wife
without paying compensation to her parents, and to take away her
ornaments, physical chastisement is never inflicted, nor is the
right of divorce iuvariably exercised. Divorced wives may marry
again by the same oeremony as is in use at the marriage of a virgin.

In matters of inheritance and succession the Lepohas follow
a tribal custom of their own, which is adminis-
tered by the panohiyats of the tribe, and
rarely oomes before the regular courts. At a man’s death his
property is supposed to be divided equally among his sons, but the
rule of equal division is liable in praotice to be modified by other
considerations. Thus the widow and daughters of the deoeased
usually live with the eldest son, and where this is the oase he gets
an extra share of the property. In Sikkim, again, it is held that
the rule of equal division only applies where the sons render equal
service to the Eaja of the country, so that if one son does service
and the others do not, that one gets an extra share of the property.
A similar principle is reoognized by the Lepohas of Darjiling.
In dividing an inheritance account is taken by the panoh&yat of the
extent to which the different heirs have contributed to the improve*
ment of the property, and their shares are adjusted accordingly.
Brothers have no claim by right of desoent, but shares may be
awarded to them by the panoh&yat in proportion to the work they
have done during the lifetime of the deceased. Wills are unknown ;
but a father may make a verbal declaration in favour of a particular
son, and the panoh&yat will give effect to this declaration of his
wishes. If sons survive, the unmarried daughters are maintained

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LEPCHA.

by them, and neither they nor married daughters take any share in
the property. If, however, there are no sons, a married daughter
may succeed, provided that she and her husband have lived in her
father's house. The whole system, however, is extremely fluid and
indefinite, and the rules stated above are in praotioe constantly modi-
fied by the panch&yat with the object of doing substantial justice
to the various claimants.

Most Lepchas at the present day profess to be Buddhists, and
. follow in a more or less intelligent fashion

lgwn. the observances of the northern sect of that

religion. It is clear, however, that at no very distant time their
sole belief was a form of Shamanistio Animism of the same general
character as that described in the article on the Limbus. Conspi-
cuous traoes of this faith still survive among them, imperfectly
hidden by the thin veil of Buddhistic usage. In the belief of the
average Lepcha, mountain and forest, rock and stream represent
ill-denned out formidable powers who threaten mankind with a
variety of physical ills, and require to be constantly appeased
through the agency of Biju&s or exorcists. Not all of these powers
are evil, and some are even credited with taking a kindly interest
in human affairs. But savage theology, expressing doubtless the
experience of primitive man as to the distribution of good and evil
in the world, teaches that the good gods abide in their own place
and take no heed of mankind, while the malevolent deities are in
a oonstant state of jealous and misohievous activity. The former
therefore gradually drop out of notice and fade from the memories
of men, while the latter, strong in the fears they inspire, may even
outlive an entire change of religion on the part of their votaries.
The snow-clad giant Kinchinjanga, chief among the elemental deities
of the Lepchas, who vexes men with storm and hail and sends down
avalanches and torrents to wreck their fields and sweep away their
homes, has been translated to the milder system of Buddhism, where
he figures as the tutor of Sakya Muni himself. Eshegenpu, Palden
Lhamo, Lapen-Rimbuchi, Genpu-Maling-Nagpu, and Wasungma
are less easy to identify ; but the fact that they receive offerings of
meat and marud beer in addition to the flowers, fruit, rice, and
incense sanctioned by Buddhist usage, lends some weight to the
conjecture that they belong to an earlier and more barbarous system.
Chirenzi or Laohen-Om-Chhup-Chhimu is said by the Lepchas to
be the same as Mahadeva. His wife is Umadeva. Both are believed
to have been worshipped by the Lepchas before the introduction of
Buddhism.

Tibetan Lamas serve the tribe as priests, and preside at all
Buddhist ceremonies. Lepchas themselves rarely beoome Lamas, but
many of them are exorcists (Biju&s or Ojhas), and exercise consider-
able influence by their power of averting the ill-will of the gods and
appeasing the spirits of the dead.

The dead are usually buried, fully clothed and in a sitting
, , position, facing towards the east. Before
“ po 0 e burial the corpse is kept sitting in the house

for two or three days with food before it. The grave is lined with

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LEPCHA.

stones and a round cairn built on the top surmounted by a flag.
Among the Bong Lepchas an Ojha is called in about a month after
death to perform a simple propitiatory rite, at whioh a cow or a goat
is killed and much mama beer is drunk. This is sometimes repeated
on the first anniversary of the death. The object is to put the dead
man’s spirit to rest, and to prevent him from plaguing the living
with bad dreams. At harvest time offerings of rice, mama beer,
and various kinds of food are presented by the head of the house-
hold for the benefit of ancestors in general.

The higher classes of Khamba Lepchas bum their dead, pound
the fragments of the bones whioh remain, and throw them into
a river, not into a jhora or hill stream. The subsequent propitiatory
oeremony is sometimes very elaborate, as in the case of the obsequies
of the sister of the Sikkim Raja, described by Mr. J. Ware Edgar,
O.S.I., in the following passage 1 : —

“Before the figure [meant to represent the dead person, in
this ease the Sikkim Rajah’s sister, who was a nun] was a table
on which were different kinds of food ; on another table at the side
were various things which had belonged to the woman when alive ;
while on a third, 108 little brass lamps were arranged in rows.
Long lines of monks in dark red robes and with very tall caps of
bright crimson on their heads sat on carpets placed in the middle of
the chapel and ohanted litanies throughout each day of my stay at
Toomlong.

“ It chanced that I saw the conclusion, and learned the meaning
of this ceremony at Pemiongchi, where the lay-figure of the nun
was taken some days after I left Toomlong. There for three days
the figure was seated before the altar, and the monks chanted the
litanies for the departure of the soul of the dead nun * * * . On
the third day the relations, friends, and dependents of the deceased
brought or sent gifts of food or clothing or money, which were all
laid before the figure of the dead woman ; while the head Lama,
standing in front of his chair and turning towards the figure, stated
the nature of each gift and the name of the donor. Towards even-
ing the tea-cup of the nun was freshly filled with tea and her murwa
jug with murwa, and all the monks solemnly drank tea with her.
Then many people who had known and loved the nun when
alive went up, and, prostrating themselves before the figure, kissed
the hem of the robe as a last farewell, while the monks ohanted
the litanies more zealously than ever, and the head Lama, who had
left his chair and gone to one of the tables, went through some
elaborate ceremonies the meaning of which I could not make out.
At about nine o’clock the chanting ceased, and the Lama again stand-
ing in front of his ohair made a long speech to the soul of the nun,
in which he told her that all that oould be done to make her journey
to another world easy had been done, and that now she would have
to go forth alone and unassisted to appear before the king and judge
of the dead * * * * * * *

When the Lama had finished his address, some of the monks took

1 Report of a Visit to Sikkim , pp. 57-58,

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LEPCHA.

down the lay-figure and undressed it; while others formed a
procession and conducted the soul of the nun into the darkness
outside the monastery, with a discordant noise of oonch-shells, thigh-
bone trumpets, Tibetan flutes, gongs, cymbals, tambourines, drums,
and other most disagreeable but nameless instruments.”

“ The Lepohas,” says Dr. Campbell, 1 “ have no caste distinctions,
F <xxL Those who live under the Nepal Government

are obliged to oonform to the Hindu laws of
that State, whioh prohibit the killing of the cow. This they do,
however, with a very bad graoe, and rarely forego an opportunity
of visiting Darjiling to indulge their beef -eating propensities.
They are gross feeders, eating all kinds of animal food, including
the elephant, rhinoceros, and monkey, and all grains and vegetables
known to us, with the addition of many roots and plants altogether
excluded from our oulinary list. Pork is their most favourite flesh ;
next to that beef, goat, and mutton. The yak is considered the best
beef, the next to that the flesh of the Sikkim oow, a fine animal, and last
the Bengali and common oow. All birds are included in their list
of eatable ^ame. Of the carrion of wild animals, that of the elephant
is most prized. The favourite vegetable food is rice; next to it
wheat, barley, maize, millet, murwa, and a fine species of yam called
“ bookh,” whioh grows all over these mountains, at elevations of from
1,500 to 3,000 feet. During the rains, when grain is soaroe, they
contentedly put up with ferns, bamboo roots, several sorts of fungi,
and innumerable suoculent plants found wild on the mountains. A
large-rooted arum is much used at this season, after being soaked in
water for six days to remove its acrid juioe ; still it often produces
colic, and is poisonous. Fond of fermented and spirituous liquors,
the Lepchas are nevertheless not given to drunkenness ; their oommon
beverage is a kind of beer made from the fermented infusion of
Indian oom and murwa, whioh is weak, but agreeably acid and very
refreshing. They drink this at all times when procurable, and when
making a journey it is carried in a large bamboo 44 chunga,” and
diligently applied to throughout the day. They have no distilled
liquor of their own, but they greatly admire and prize all our strong
waters— our port and sherry, cherry brandy, and maraschino. Tea
is a favourite beverage, the black sort brought from China in large
cakes being that preferred. It is prepared by boiling, after which
the deoootion is churned up in a “ chunga,” with butter and salt.
Milk is never taken with tea. Their cooking is careless, ooarse, and
not deanly. Rioe is generally boiled when travelling in pieoes of
the large bamboo ; at home, in coarse iron pots. Vegetables are
always boiled in oil, when the latter is procurable, and spioed with
capsicum and ginger, of which these hills possess very fine kinds.
Salt is not a oommonly used oondiment, the chief sQuroe of its supply
till lately being Tibet, whence rook-salt is brought on men’s backs :
the easier communication with the plains of Bengal by the new
Darjiling road admits of the importation of this article at a cheaper
rate, and sea-salt is rapidly taking the place of the other.

1 Journal qf the Ethnological Society qf London , vol. I, No. 2,
pp. 147-49.

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LEPCHA.

44 The Lepoha drees is simple and graoeful. It consists of a robe
__ of striped red and white ootton cloth crossed

over the breast and shoulders, and descending
to the calf of the legs, leaving the arms bare ; a loose jacket of red
ootton cloth is worn over the robe by those who can afford it, and
both are bound round the waist by a red gridle; some strings of
coloured beads round the neck, silver and coral earrings, a bamboo
bow and quiver of iron-pointed arrows, and a long knife complete
the dress of the men. The knife, called 44 ban ” by the Lepohas,
and 44 ohipsa ” by the Bhotias, is constantly worn by the males of
all ages and ranks ; it hangs on the right side, suspended from the
left shoulder, and is used for all purposes. With the 44 ban ” the
Lepcha clears a space in the forest for his house and cultivation ;
it is the only tool used by him in building ; with it he skins the
animals that fall a prey to his snares and arrows ; it is his sword in
battle, his table knife, his hoe, spade, and nail-parer. Without the
44 ban ” he is helpless to move in the jungle ; with it he is a man
of all work : the expertness with which it is used by the boys of a
few years old even is the astonishment of strangers . 1 The women
are less neatly dressed than the men : a pieoe of plain unbleached
ootton cloth, or the doth of the oastor oil insect— the indi — rolled
round to form a sort of petticoat, with a loose red gown of the same,
and a profusion of mock ooral and coloured bead necklaces, form
their entire wardrobe. They are the domestic and farm drudges of
the men, performing all out and in-door work along with their
husbands, and much besides. It is not unusual to meet a stout and
active man, bow in hand, sauntering along the road followed by his
wife and sisters heavily loaded with grain or merchandise. It is
the delight of a Lepcha to be idle ; he abhors the labour of practising
any craft, but he expects that while he is amused and unemployed
the female part of the household shall be busily engaged in the field,
or in looking after the pigs and poultry. In recent times they have
taken to work in tea plantations and as chair-bearers : and the
necessity for money, since we introduced it into their oountry, has
made them more steady workers.”

9 41 The Lepchas are poor agriculturists, their labours in this art
0 tion being oonfined to the careless growing of rice,
ccupa on. Indian com, murwa ( Sessasum Orientals ), and

a few vegetables, of whioh the brinjal, cucumber, and oapsioum are
the chief. Their habits are incurably erratic: they do not form
permanent villages, and rarely remain longer than three years in
one plaoe, at the expiration of whioh they move into a new part of
the forest, sometimes near, often distant, and there go through the
labour of clearing a spaoe for a house, building a new one, and
preparing the ground for a crop. The latter operations consist in
cutting down the smaller trees, lopping off the branches of the large
ones, which are burnt, and scratching the soil with the 44 ban,” after

ride.

The 44 ban ” is a straight sword with a wooden scabbard open along one
Journal qf the Ethnological Society qf London t vol. I, No. 2, p. 151.

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LEPCHA.

LIMBU.

which, on the (ailing of a shower of rain, the seed is thrown into
the ground. Their houses are built entirely of bamboo, raised about
five feet from the ground, and thatched with the same material, but
a smaller species, split up.”

The Lepchas numbered 3,952 in 1872 and 202 in 1881 in the
distriot of Darjiling.

Lepuriet, a mul or section of
the Naomulii or Majraut sub-
caste of Goal&s in Behar.

Let, a sub-caste of Bagdis
found in Murshedabad and Bir-
bhum.

Lethrani, the designation of
the women of the Limbu
caste in Darjiling.

Lev&tid, a section of Majraut
Go&lAs in Behar.

Lhasung, a sub-sept of the
Pon-po sept of Dejong Lhoris or
Bhotias of the south, the members
of which officiate as priests of all
the septs.

Lha-yo, a thar or sept of
Mangars in Darjiling.

Lhebo Lamsani, a thar or
sept of the Das-Gurung sub-tribe
of Gurungs. There is a tradition
that in ancient times two Gurungs
— father and son— quarrelled and
separated from each other. The
father’s party remained at Lehbo
and the son’s party emigrated to

a distant plaoe. The latter
were called Lamsani Tangi ( tangi
in Gurung means ‘ separated ').

Lhopa, a native of Bhotan.

Lhopa Bhotia , a synonym for
Dejong Lhori.

Lhoringten, the chief of Mo-
rang, a sept of the Chaibisa sub-
tribe of Iambus. This thar was
formerly under the Morang
Baja.

Lhorong, a sub-tribe of Takhas
in Darjiling.

Li bang, the archer, a sept of
the Midkhola sub-tribe of Limbus
in Darjiling.

Lihimba, dove, a totemistio
sept of J uangs in Orissa.

Lila, fish, a totemistio sept of
Oraons in Chota Nagpur.

Lilia, wild oow, a totemistio
sept of Mundasin Chota Nagpur.

Liluai, a sept of Birhors in
Chota Nagpur.

^Cintbtt, a large tribe, probably of Mongolian descent, ranking
_ . . . next to the Khambu and above the Yakha

ionso ongin. amon g the three upper divisions of the

Kiranti group. The precedence given to the Khambus is supposed
to be due to their having a larger proportion of Khas and Newar
blood, while the Limbus have interbred freely with the Lepchas.
The Yakha are a minor tribe, concerning whioh little is known.
Unlike the other two, they have no generally recognized honorific title,
though they olaim to be addressed as detcan and oall themselves Yak
Thomba or yakherds, with reference to the tradition that this was
their characteristic occupation before the tribe orossed the Himalaya
into Eastern Nepal. The name Limbu, or Das Limbu, from the
ten sub-tribes (really thirteen) into which they are supposed to be
divided, is used only by outsiders. Tibetans have no special name

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LIMBU.

for the Limbus ; they call all the tribes of the Indian side of the
Himalaya by the general name Monpa or dwellers in the ravines.
The Lepohas and Bhotias or Tibetans settled in Bhotan, Sikkim, and
Nepal speak of the Limbus as Tsong, because the five thurm or sub-
tribes inoluded in the class known as Lhasa-gotra emigrated to
Eastern Nepal from the distriot of Tsang in Tibet. Lepohas call
them Chang, which may be a corruption of Tsong. By other
members of the Kiranti group they are addressed by the honorific
title of Subah or Suffah, a ohief.

The Limbus, according to Dr. Campbell, “ form a large portion
of the inhabitants in the mountainous couutry lying between the
Dud-Kosi and the Eanki rivers in Nepal, and are found in smaller
numbers eastwards to the Mechi river, which forms the boundary of
Nepal and Sikkim. In still fewer numbers they exist within
the Sikkim territory, as far east as the Tista river, beyond
which they rarely settle. In Bhutan they are unknown except as
strangers.” Hodgson locates them between the Arun Kosi and
the Mechi, the Singilela ridge being their boundary on the east.
The Limbus themselves claim to have held from time immemorial
the Tamba Khola valley on the upper waters of the Tamba Eosi
river; and the fact that one of their sub-tribes bears the name
T&mbakhola suggests that this valley may have been one of their
early settlements. They have also a tradition that five out of
their thirteen sub* tribes came from Lhasa, while five others came
from Benares. The former group is called the Lhasa-gotra, and the
latter the Easi-gotra ; but the term gotra has in this case no bearing
on marriage. All that can safely be said is that the Limbus are
the oldest recorded population of the oountry between the Tamra
Eosi and the Mechi, and their flat features, slightly oblique eyes,
yellow oomplexion, and beardlessness may perhaps afford grounds for
believing them to be the descendants of early Tibetan settlers in
Nepal. They appear to have mixed little with the Hindus, but
much with the Lepchas, who of late years have migrated in large
numbers from Sikkim to the west. Dr. Campbell compares the two
tribes in the following words: — “The Limbu is a very little taller
in stature than the Lepcha, somewhat less fleshy, and more wiry
in the limbs, as fair in oomplexion, and as completely beardless.
He is soarcely ever as ruddy as the Lepchas sometimes are; his
eyes are, if anything, smaller, and placed more to the front than
the Lepoha’s, and Ins nose, although somewhat smaller, is rather
higher in the bridge than that of the Lepcha. He wears his hair long,
but does not plait it into a tail ; has no fancy for bead necklaces ;
wears a kukri instead of the ban , x and wide trousers and a jacket or
chapkan in preference to the robe and long jacket of the Lepchas.”

At the time of the Gurkha conquest of Nepal the country east
of the Arun Eosi was held by petty Limbu chiefs on quasi-feudal
terms from the Hindu Rajas of Bijapur and Makwinpur, at whose
oourts representative Limbus discharged the duties of Chauntra or
prime minister. Taking refuge in the hill forts with which each

1 The long, straight knife used by the Lepchas.

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LIMBU.

chief ship was provided, the Limbus offered a gallant resistance to the
invading Gurkhas, and the latter underwent many repulses before their
supremacy was fully established. Although used to bearing arms,
and deeming themselves a military race, they do not rank among the
regular fighting tribes of Nepal, and they are not admitted into the
Gorkhdli regiments of the Nepalese army. Their principal occupa-
tions at the present day are agriculture, grazing, and petty trade.
They serve in the Kiranti regiments raised about 30 years ago by
Jang Bahadur, and some of them have enlisted in our own Gurkha
battalions. 8ome authorities believe them, with the rest of the
Kiranti, to be inferior in soldierly qualities to the Khas, Mangar,
and Gurung tribes, from whom our best recruits are drawn, but this
opinion seems to be giving away, among the present generation of
Gurkha officers, to a more favourable estimate of their military
oapacity, and their behaviour in the Sikkim oompaign of 1888 is
understood to have borne out the latter view.

The internal structure of the tribe is extremely complicated, and
t . , . . can best be studied in the Appendix, where it

is shown in a tabular form. The Limbus are

divided into thirteen endogamous sub- tribes, eaoh of which is again
broken up into a number of exogamous septs. The names of the
septs are extremely ourious. Two or three at the most are totemistio,
a few are local or territorial, and one only is eponymous. By far
the greater number of them refer to some personal adventure or
peculiarity of the original founder of the sept, and they suggest the
existence of a considerable body of rather grotesque folklore. The
rule of exogamy goes by the male side, and is supplemented by
forbidding intermarriage between persons descended in a direct line
from the same parents as long as any relationship can be traced.
Intermarriage between cousins is barred for three generations, or, as
some say, for seven. In practice, however, while the rule forbidding
marriage within the thar is most strictly observed, there seems to be
much uncertainty about prohibited degrees, and I believe near
alliances with the mother’s kindred are by no means uncommon.
A further complication is introduced by the restrictions on inter-
marriage arising from mith (Limbu Baiba) friendship or on fictitious
brotherhood among most of the hill races. Two men contract
friendship by a special ritual at which a Brahman, or, when the
parties are Buddhists, a Lama, officiates, and reads mantras or
mystic formulae, while the two friends thrice exohange rupees, hand-
kerchiefs, or scarves, and daub each other between the eyebrows
with the paste made of rice and curds which is used in the marriage
ceremony. The effect of the union is that the friends are reckoned
as brothers, and intermarriage between the two families is prohibited
for several (some say eighteen) generations. Any breach of the
rule is punished in British territory by exclusion from oaste. In
Nepal, I am informed, more severe punishments, suoh as death or
slavery, are inflicted.

Members of the Murmi, Lepoha, and Bhotia tribes may be
admitted into the Limbu tribe after being approved by the tribal
council, called by the Limbus thum-thum , and giving a feast to the

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LIMBU.

local community. In some cases the new member is required to file
a written statement to the effeot that he has entered the tribe and
will abide by its rules. Khambus and Yakhas, being Kir&ntis them*
selves, may be admitted into the tribe by the simpler and more direot
process of adoption. In any case the children of a Limbu man by
a Bhotia, Lepcha, Gurung, Sunawar, Mangar, or Murmi woman, or
of a Limbu woman by a man of any of these groups, are admitted

without question into the Limbu community.

The phlegmatic and utilitarian habit of mind which a German
R r . ethnologist has noticed as characteristic of the

e lgion. Mongolian races oomes out conspicuously in the

nonchalant attitude of the Limbus towards religion. Where their
surroundings are Hindu, they describe themselves as Saivas, and
» to worship, though with sparing and infrequent observance,
deva and bis consort Gauri, the deities most favoured by the
lax Hinduism of NepaL In a Buddhist neighbourhood the yoke of
conformity is still more easy to bear : the Limbu has only to mutter
the pious formula, om mani padme om, and to pay respect and
moderate tribute to the Lamas, in order to be aooepted as an average
Buddhist. Beneath this veneer of oonformity with whatever faith

happens to have gained local acceptation, the vague shapes of their
original Pantheon have survived in the form of household or forest
gods, much in the same way as Dionysus and other of the Greek gods
may be traced in the names and attributes of the saints who preside
over the vintage, the harvest and rural festivals of various kinds in
remote parts of Greeoe at the present day. Under such disguises,
which serve to mask departures from the popular creeds, the Limbus
worship a host of spiritual beings whose attributes are ill-defined,
and whose very names are not easy to ascertain. Yuma, E£pob&,
and Theba rank as household gods, and are propitiated once in
five years, or whenever disease or loss of property threaten the
family, by the slaughter, outside the house, of buffaloes, pigs or
fowls. The votaries eat the saorifioe, and thus, as they express it,
“ dedicate the life-breath to the gods, the flesh to ourselves.” No
special days are set apart for the ceremony \ but it oannot be per-
formed on Sunday, as that day is sacred to Himdriyi. Those who
wholly neglect the duty are supposed to suffer in person or property,
and the common hill disease of goitre is believed to be one of the

special modes by whioh the gods manifest their displeasure.
Temples and idols are alike unknown, nor, so far as I can ascertain,
does the imagination of the Limbus trouble itself to olothe its vague
spiritual conceptions with any bodily form.

Himariya, the god of the forest, is propitiated on Sundays by
offerings of sheep, goats, fowls, pigeons and Indian-oom. A stone
uuder a tree by the roadside is smeared with vermilion and bound
with thread, and this place of saorifioe is marked by oonseorated
rags tied to a bamboo pole.

In addition to these more or less benefioent, or at least neutral,
divinities, the Limbus are oompassed about by a multitude of name-
less evil spirits, “ who require peculiar management in warding off
their caprices.” To appease and propitiate these is the special funotion

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LIMBIT.

of the Bijuds, a class of wandering mendicants peculiar to Sikkim
and the eastern parts of Nepal. Bijuds are wholly illiterate, and
travel about the country mattering prayers and incantations, dancing,
singing, prescribing for the sick and casting out devils. They wear
a purple robe and broad-brimmed hat, and are regarded with great
awe by the people, into whom they have instilled the convenient
belief that their curses and blessings will surely be fulfilled, and that
ill-luck will attend any one who allows a Bijua to leave his door
dissatisfied.

While the Bijud acts as exorcist and devil-worshipper for all
the Himalayan races, the equally illiterate Phedangma is the tribal
priest of the Limbus for the higher grades of spirits, and officiates at
sacrifices, marriages, and funerals. He is also called in at births to
foretell the destiny of the infant, and to invoke the blessings of the
gods. The office frequently descends from father to son, but any
one may become a Phedangbo who has a turn for propitiating the
gods, and for this reason the oooupation shows no signs of hardening
into a caste.

It will be apparent from the facts stated above that the leading
Animiam. ~ principle of the Limbu religion is animism ,
“ the belief in the existence of souls or spirits
of whioh only the powerful — those on which man feels himself
dependent, and before which he stands in awe— acquire the rank
of divine beings and become objeots of worship .” 1 Among the
Limbus, as among the aborigines of Chota Nagpur, who appear
to have reaohed a very similar stage of development, this belief has
given birth to a number of primitive miscellaneous divinities whose
Emotions are very vaguely defined, and who do not owe allegiance
to any centralised authority. This multiplicity of deities would of
itself seem to favour the growth of Shamanism, a phenomenon
which Sir John Lubbock regards as a widely distributed phase of
thought forming a neoessary stage in the progress of religious
development. Uthers have gone so far as to use Shamanism as a
sort of general name for all those animistic religions which make
prominent use of the agency of the Shaman. Without disputing
the convenience, or indeed the necessity, of introducing a class-
name of some kind, I would urge that Shamanism is a term
singularly ill-suited to serve as the designation of a large group
of religions. For in the first place the practice which it denotes is
common to religions of all varieties of culture, and is by no means
confined to the religions specially called Shamanistio ; and secondly,
the word, while calling attention to the superficial, fails to connote the
essential characteristics of the class of religions in question. It may,
indeed, possibly be the case, as has been hinted above, that the com-
plicated departmentalism of certain animistio religions, where the
supreme power is cut up into fractions and distributed among an army
of gods, ghosts and demons, has led to the development of Shaman-
ism by leaving it uncertain to whom a man should apply for the
alleviation of any particular evil. The Shaman, like the touts who

1 Tiele, Outlines qf the History of the Ancient Religions, p. 9,

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LIMBU.

hang about our publio offioes, professes to help people out of this
difficulty, and to show them not only to what god their petitions
should be addressed, but in what form they should be couched, and
by what ceremonies introduced. But even on this showing the prac-
tice is the consequence, not the cause, of certain primitive ideas ; and
it is these ideas, not any of their more or less variable oonsequenoes,
which a definition should aim at expressing. Taken by itseli, then,
the word Shamanism seems to fall short of completeness as a
description of the Limbu religion. For all religions of that type the
term animism should be retained as denoting the entourage of vague
spiritual influences which is of their essenoe. In dealing with these
surroundings different agencies are resorted to : sometimes the fetish
predominates; sometimes the medicine man. According as one or
the other of these predominates, the particular form of animism
may conveniently be styled fetishistic or Shamanistio. Following
this principle, the Limbu religion may be defined as a rather
elementary form of Shamanistio animism, in which the Bijui
and Phedangma play the part of Shaman, the former operating
on the demons, and the latter having for his department the gods.
Finally, we may perhaps hazard the conjecture that the original
religion of the Limbus is closely akin to the Pon or ancient religion
of Tibet. In both we find the forces of nature and the spirits
of departed men exalted into objects of worship. In both systems
temples and images are unknown, while propitiatory offerings
occupy a prominent place. To complete the parallel, neither recog-
nize a definite priestly order, while both enoourage resort to
Shamans or medioine men to ward off the malign influences which
surround the human raoe.

Both cremation and burial are in vogue among the Limbus,

Disposal of the dead. latter the °° mmon .» and P«>bably

the older, practioe. The corpse is placed lying
on its back with the head to the east. The grave is lined with stones,
and a cairn, consisting of four tiers for a man and three for a woman,
erected on the top. The Phedangma attends at the funeral and
delivers a brief address to the departed spirit on the general lot of
mankind and the doom of birth and death, concluding with the
command to go whither his fathers have gone and not to come back
to trouble the living with dreams. Neither food nor clothes are
plaoed in the grave, out sometimes a brass plate with a rupee in it
is laid under the head of the oorpse. For nine days after the
funeral the sons of the deoeased live on plain rice without any salt ;
and for a month or two the relatives wear flowers in their hair
and avoid merry-makings. The special and characteristic sign of
mourning is a piece of white rag tied round Hie head. There is no
periodical ceremony for the propitiation of ancestors.

At a man’s death his sons, natural or adopted, divide his property ;
... but an adopted son or a natural son by a wife

en 909 informally married (kachchi e&di) takes only
one-half of a legitimate son’s share. The division of the property is
usually made by the tribal council ( thum-thum ), who set apart an
extra share for the eldest son. The youngest son is allowed to

6 2

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LIMBIT.

LINGKHIM.

choose his share first, and the other shares are then allotted by the
thum-thum. Failing sons, the sons-in-law actually living in or
willing to live in the family homestead are entitled to divide the
property. Brothers are the next heirs, and married sisters, if they
attend the funeral, usually get a small share in the inheritance,
although it is said that they have no positive right to claim this
concession. An exoeption to these rules of devolution oocurs in the
case of daijo or property given to a sister or daughter or acquired
from a maternal uncle or father-in-law. This is equally distributed
among the sons of the woman to whom or on whose behalf it was
given, and in the event of her dying without ohildren it reverts to her
own family. This simple customary law is administered by the
headmen of the tribe, and hardly any instances are known of Limbus
having resorted to our courts for the settlement of disputes regarding
property.

The Limbus stand wholly outside of the Hindu caste system,
and their social position can only be defined

506 a with referenoe to the other Himalayan raoes.

They belong to the upper division of the Kirinti group, whioh
inhabits the middle hills of the Himalayas, and rarely descends
below an elevation of 2,000 feet. Within this division the Limbu
take rank below the Khambu and above the Y&kha, but this distinc-
tion is probably unknown beyond the limits of the Kir&nti group,
and in the eyes of sooiety at large the three tribes occupy practically
an equal position. They oonsider themselves, and are regarded by
others, as superior to the Danu4r, Hayu, and Th£mi, who make
up the lower division of the Kirinti. Their relations to the people
of Nepal are less easy to define. They are certainly deemed inferior
to the Khas, and probably also to the Mangars and Gurungs,
both of whom are classed as military tribes. Newars hold a place
second only to the Khas; Gurungs are inferior to the Newars.
Mangar and Sunwar have their plaoe next to the Gurungs ; Limbus,
Khambus, and Yakhas are inferior to the Hangar and Sunwar.

In the matter of food, they have very few prejudices. They
eat beef, pork, and the flesh of all clean-feeding animals, and drink
wine. In fact, the only restrictions on their diet appear to be those
imposed on certain thars by the obligation not to eat the totem or
beast-eponym of the group. They will eat with all the castes of the
hills except the Kami, Damai, Sarki, and Gain.

The Census Report of 1881 returned 2,429 Limbus in the

district of Darjiling.

Linda, eel, a totemistic sept of
Oraons in Chota Nagpur.

Lin-dseh-bo, a rui or sept of
the Bedtshan-gye sub-tribe of
Dejong Lhoris or Bhotias of the
south,

Lingdam, a sept of the Char-
khola sub-tribe of Limbus, said
to be admitted from the Lepchas.

Lingden, a sept of the Yan-
gorup sub-tribe of Limbus,
said to be admitted from the
Lepohas.

Lingdenbeh, a sept of Lim-
bus in Darjiling.

Lingkhim, a sept of the Tam-
brkola sub-tribe of Limbus in
Darjiling.

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LINOLAMPHEN.

LOHAB.

Lingl&mphen, a sept of Lim- Lodh, a title of Dakshin-RArhi
bus in Darjiling. and Bangaja Kayastha in Ben-

Ling-tamba, a rui or sept of

Dejong Lhoris, whose ancestor Lodhiyi, a sub-oaste of Binds
had emigrated from Bhotan. j n B ehar .

Liokichd, a thar or sept of Log&in, a m ul or section of the
SunowArs in Daqihng. Kanaujia sub-caste of Sonars in

Lipo, a tree, a totemistio sept Behar.
of ltad» m Chot. S««. Ugna Kotrai ^ Jaeri a

L it iya, a bird, a totemistio sept totemistio sept of Mund&s in
of Mundas in Chota Nagpur. Chota Nagpur.

Lo, a section of Murmis in Logo, a sept of Mundas in
Darjiling. Chota Nagpur believed to be

*Lo&yat, a synonym for Kuri totemistio.
or MayarA in Tipperah. Lohi, iron, a totemistio sept

Lodah, a sub-tribe of Bhumijs of T&ntis, Oraons, and Qonds in
in Chota Nagpur. Chota Nagpur.

Lodarwa, a mul or section of Loh&gun, a section of Kimis ;
the Kanaujia sub-caste of Sonars a thar or sept of Mangars in

in Behar. Darjiling.

a small caste found along the banks of the
Meghna, who represent themselves as the descendants of a Kaibartta
fisherboy, bought during a season of famine by a Kuri, or parcher of

D rains, who took this means of securing a husband for his daughter.

'he oaste has separated into two subdivisions, those following the
father’s profession of fisherman having repudiated connection with
the maternal branch, who paroh grain.

The Lohait-Kuri at present associates neither with the Kaibart-

tas nor with the Kuri or Mayara. The majority are fishermen, who
will not cast a net or fish from the shore, but angle with a rod from
boats drifting with the stream. The name Lohait-Kuri is said to
come from their using large rectangular iron hooks, with a shank
nearly two inches long. Iron sinkers are preferred to leaden ones,
. and the only bait used is a small fish.

A Patit Brahman ministers to them, and the traddha is kept at
the expiry of a lunar month. Like other fishermen, they observe the
Jal-p41ani for seven days. A heavy fee is paid for a wife, as the
caste is a small one, and one hundred rupees is not an unusual bride-
price, while a widower may have to pay as muoh as two hundred. The
Loh&it-Kuris carry on a considerable trade with their own boats, but
will not aooept service with any other oaste.

Lohar, a sub-caste of Barhis Loh&r caste. The latter are
in Behar who work only in iron, probably of Dravidian descent,
They are, however, distinct from, while the former appear to be
and do not intermarry with, the an occupational group.

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LOHAR.

Lohdr, a synonym for Kdmdr caste of Gtodlds in Behar ; a
in Behar; a mui or section of section of Kdmis in Darjil-
the NaomuliA or Majraut sub- ing.

^Cohit, the blacksmith caste of Behar, Chota Nagpur, and
' . . Western Bengal. The Loh&rs are a large and

tion o origin. heterogeneous aggregate, comprising members
of several different tribes and castes, who in different parts of the

country took up the profession of working in iron. Of the various
sub-castes shown in Appendix I, the Kanaujid claim to be the
highest in rank, and theyalone have a well-marked set of exogamous
sections. They regard Viswdmitra as their legendary ancestor, and
worship him as the tutelary deity of their craft. The Kokds Lohdrs
seem to be a branoh of the Barhis, who have taken to working in
iron and separated from the parent group for that reason. The
Maghaiya seems to be the indigenous Lohdrs of Behar, or opposed
to the Kanaujid and Mathuriyd, who profess to have oome in fr$m
the North- West Provinces. Kamdr-Kalla Lohdrs may perhaps be
a degraded offshoot from the Sonar caste. The Mahur or Mahulia
say they came from the North-Western Provinces, and the fact that
all Hindus can take water from their hands renders it likely that they

may have broken off from some comparatively respectable caste.

Their traditions, however, are not definite
c ure * enough to enable this conjecture to be verified.
The Kamid Lohdrs found in Champdran have immigrated from
Nepal, and are regarded as ceremonially unolean. Many of them
have beoome Mahomedans. In the Santdl Pargands, a sort of
ethnio border land between Bengal and Behar, we find three sub-
castes of Lohdrs,— Birbhum id, from the neighbouring distriot of
Birbhum; Govindpurid, from the subdivision of Govindpur, in
Northern Manbhum; and Shergarhid, from the pargand of that
name in Bardwan. The names give no clue to the tribal affinities
of these three groups, but the fact that they have the totemistio section
Sal-mdchh shows them to be of non- Aryan descent, probably Bauris
or Bdgdis, who took to iron-working and called themselves Lohdrs.
Of the four sub- castes into which the Lohdrs of Bankura are divided,

two bear the names Gobrd and Jhetid, whioh ocour among the
sub-castes of the Bauris. Two others — Angarid and Pdnsili —
I am unable to trace. The Manbhum Lohdrs acknowledge three sub-
castes, — Lohdr-Mdnjhi, Danda-Mdnjhi, and Bdgdi-Lohdr, names
which suggest a connexion with the Bdgdi caste. Lastly, in Lohar-
dagd we have the Sad-Lohdrs, claiming to be immigrant Hindus;
the Manjhal-Turiyds, who may well be a branch of the Turi caste;
and the Mundd-Lohdrs, who are oertainly Mundds. The great
number of the sub castes, ooupled with the fact that in some cases
we can determine with approximate certainty the tribes of which they
once formed part, seem to point to the conclusion, not merely that
the aggregate termed the Lohdr caste is made up of drafts locally
levied from whatever groups were available for employment in a
comparatively menial occupation, but that all castes whose functions

Digitized by LjOOQLe

LOHAB.

Marriage.

are concerned with the primary needs of sooial life are the result of
a similar process.

Further indications of the different elements from whioh the
caste has been formed may be traced in its
social customs. The Lohdrs of Chota Nagpur
and Western Bengal practise adult as well as infant-marriage, a
price is paid for the bride, and the marriage ceremony is substantially
identical with that in use among the Bagdis. Polygamy they
allow without imposing any limit on the number of wives a
man may have, and they reoognize the extreme license of divoroe
characteristic of the aboriginal raoes. In Behar, on the other
hand, infant-marriage is the rule and adult-marriage the rare excep-
tion. The ceremony is modelled on the orthodox type. A bridegroom-
price is paid, and polygamy is lawful ouly on failure of issue by the
first wife. As to divorce, some diversity of practice seems to prevail.
Kanaujias profess to prohibit it altogether, while other sub-castes
admit it only with the permission of the panchayat, and regard the
remarriage of divorced wives with disfavour. Widow-marriage is
recognized both in Behar and elsewhere ; but this is by no means
a distinctively Dravidian usage, but rather a survival of early Aryan
custom, whioh has fallen into disuse among the higher castes under
the influence of Brahmanical prejudice.

Equally characteristic differences may be observed in the religi-
. ous usages of the main branches of the caste.

bglon * Kanaujid Lohdrs and all the Behar sub-castes,

exoept the Nepalese Kamids, pose as orthodox Hindus, employ
Maithil Brahmans, and worship the standard gods. In Chota
Nagpur and Western Bengal, though some profession of Hinduism
is made, this is little more than a superficial veneer laid on at
a very recent date, and the real worship of the caste is addressed to
Manasd, Edm Thdkur, Baranda Thdkur, Phulai Gosdin, Dalli
Gorai, Bhddu, and Mohan Giri. In the latter we may perhaps
recognize the mountain god (Marang Burn) of the Mundas and
Santdls. To him goats are saorifioed on Mondays or Tuesdays
in the months of Mdgh, Ashdr, and Agrahdyan, the flesh being after-
wards eaten by the worshippers, 'file Lohdrs of Bankura and the
Santdl Pargands have taken to employing low Brahmans, but in
Lohardagd the aboriginal priest ( pdhan ) and the looal sorcerer (mati,
ojhdy or sokha) minister to their spiritual wants. The Sad-Lohdrs
alone show an advance in the direction of orthodoxy, in that
they employ the village barber to act as priest in the marriage
ceremony.

In Behar the caste work as blacksmiths and carpenters, while
_ many have taken to cultivation. They buy

ccupa ion. their material in the form of pigs or bars of

iron. Iron-smelting is confined to the Lohdrs of Chota Nagpur,
and is supposed to be a much less respectable form of industry than
working up iron which other people have smelted. In the Santdl
Pargands Lohars often cultivate themselves, while the women of the
household labour at the forge. None of the Western Bengal
Lohdrs combine carpentry with working in iron.

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LOHAB.

LOKMAHUNG,

In Behar Lohirs rank with Koiris and Kannis, and Brahmans
Sodai status. take water from their hands. The status of the
§ a, caste in Western Bengal is far lower, and they
are associated in matters of food and drink with Bauris, Bigdis,
and Mils.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of
Lohirs in 1872 and 1881

District.

1871.

1881.

District.

1878.

1881.

Bardwan

Bankura

Birbhum

Midnapur

Hurhli

84>Pargaaas

Nadiya

Jeasore

Dinajpur

Bajshahye

fXZ ::: ::: :::

Darjiling , M

Kurh Btfaar ...

Paridpur

Maimantinh

Chittagong

Patna ...

s a

\\V

7,804

80S

5,507

1,007

8)8

838

101

577

8,054

Gya

8hahabad

"—{SSSsr :::

Saran

Champarau

Mongbyr

Bbagalpur

Furman ...

Maldah

8ant41 Pargania

Cuttack

Bala so re ... . M

Tributary States

Hazaribagh

Lohardaga ...

8ingbhum

Manbhum

Tributary States

17,816

87,959
} 57.841
88,449
86,958
7.179
88,405
16.063

14,870

' S-sg

[1=^1

16,659
80,868
< 88,245
l 11,881
48,025
84,015
4,238
9,789
7,958
307
8,918

r 800

1,887

8,428

84,108

1,886

1,531

10,308

Lohari, a sept of Mundas in
Ohota Nagpur.

Lobar- Agar ii, a sub-tribe of
Agariis in Ghota Nagpur.

Loharitengi, a section of
Bajwirs in Western Bengal.

Loharbans, iron, a totemistio
sept of Ohiks; a section of
Ghisis in Chota Nagpur.

Lohir-Kimir, a sub-caste of
Kimirs in Midnapur.

Lohirkoriyi, a seotion of
Bhits.

Lohir Minjhi, a sub-caste of
Lohirs in Manbhum.

Lohatii, a section of Sonirs
in Behar.

Lohchabi a section of Goilis
in the North-Western Provinces
and Behar.

Lohrd, a synonym for Asura
and Lohir.

Lohra Asur, a sub-tribe of
Asuras in Chota Nagpur.

Lohrakhukhri, a kind of wild
mushroom, a totemistio sept of
Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Lohrii, an iron-smelter.

Lohsi, a sub-caste of Kimars
in Manbhum.

Lohtamiii a sept of Bijputs
in Behar.

Lohutii, a mul or section of
the Ghosin sub-caste of Goil&s in
Behar.

Loityal, a thar or section of
Nepili Brahmans.

Lokindri, a section of Eimis
in Darjiling.

Lokirk, a pur or section of
Sikadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Lokmahung, a sept of the
Phedib sub-tribe of Limbus in
Darjiling.

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LOKSOHM.

LUTI.

Loksohm, a sept of the
Yongorup sub-tribe of Limbus,
said to be admitted from the
Lepohas.

Lolutra, a mul or section of the
Ghhamulii Madhesia sub-caste of
Halwiis in Behar.

^ Lomasd, a Brahmauioal sec-
tion of Khatris in Bengal.

Longa, a bird with long tail,
a totemistio sept of Mundas in
Chota Nagpur.

Lop&te, a thar or sept of
Gurungs in Darjiling.

Lopchan, a section of Murmis
in Darjiling.

Lori, a dugu or section of the
Koohh-MAndAi in Dacca.

Loskra, a sept of ChakmAs in
the Hill Tracts of Ohittagong.

Lothdng, a thar or sept of
Gurungs in Darjiling.

Lowa, a sept of Pins in Chota
Nagpur.

Lovi, a section of Mahesris
in Benar.

Loyna, a sept of Chiks in
Chota Nagpur.

Lu, a title of Tintis in BengaL

Ludhi, a sub-caste of Baniyis
who deal in lodh or catechu.

Ludhna, a sub-oaste of Bhuiyas
in Singbhum.

Lugni&r, hare, a totemistio
sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Lugum, a tree, a totemistio
sept of Mundas in Chota Nag-
pur.

Lugumah, a sept of Limbus
in Darjiling.

Lugunki, a sept of Mundas in
Chota Nagpur.

Luhd, a sept of the P&nthar
sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Lukhasan, a seotion of Goilis
in Behar.

Luksom, a sept of Lepohas
in Darjiling.

Lukum, a sept of RAjputs
in Behar.

Lulang, a sept of the Tun£-
jainya sub-tribe of ChakmAs in
the Hill Tracts of Chittagong.

Lumphongma, those who
shared the land, a sept of the
PhedAb sub-tribe of Limbus in
Darjiling.

Lumria, fox, a totemistio sept
of LohArs in Chota Nagpur.

Lungyeli, a thar or sept of
Mangars in Darjiling.

Zunid , a synonym for NuniA.

Luniw&l, a section of GoAlAs
in the North-Western Provinces
and Behar.

Lupu, paddy husks, a totem-
istio sept of Mundas in Chota
Nagpur.

Luti, small black fly, a totem-
istio sept of Mundas in Chota
Nagpur.

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MACHHILHA.

MADHUNAPIT.

2fi

Machhilhd, a section of Son&rs
in Behar.

Machhufi, a sub- caste of
Bagdis and Kewats ; a synonym
for Gonrhi, Kewat, and Tiyar ; a
title of Mils and of low class
Mahomedans who sell fish retail.
The latter do not catch fish
themselves, but obtain their
supplies on a system of advances
from the regular fishing castes.
Hindus who follow the same
avocation are called Nik&ri, q.v.

Machi, a section of Sonars in
Behar.

Machiw&r, fish, a totemistio
sept of Pans in Chota Nagpur.

Mach I i, fish, a totemistio sept
of Mundas ; a section of Siriks
in Chota Nagpur.

Madak , a synonym for Madhu-
ndpit and MayarA

M&dalw&r, a section of Turis
in Chota Nagpur.

Mad&n, a thar or sept of
Ourungs in Darjiling.

Mad&rl, a sub-caste of Mils,
who are often employed as snake-
charmers.

Maden, the son of his mother,
a sept of the Chhothar and
Phedib sub-tribes of limbus in
Darjiling. The name may possi-
bly have reference to a system of
female kinship whioh has now
fallen into disuse.

Maderwir, a sept of Khar-
wars in Chota Nagpur.

M&dhaby a family of the
Kulin group of Jugis in Bengal.

M&dhab&ch&rjya, a seot of
Vaishnavs in Bengal.

Madha GaurS, a sub-caste of
Gaura Brahmans in Behar.

M4dhdi,a met orhypergamous
sub-group of Birhi Brahmans in
Bengal.

Madhepuriet, amu/ or section
of the Naomulii or Majraut sub-
caste of Goilis in Behar.

Madhesiai a sub-caste of
Go&l&s, Halwiiis, and Hindus in
Behar.

Madhubanii, a pur or section
of Sikadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Madhu Go&IA, a sub-caste of
Goil&s in Bengal.

Madhugr&mi, a g&in of the
Bitsya gotra of Uttar-Birendra
Brahmans in Bengal.

Madhukari, a sub-caste of
Tintis in Bengal.

Madhukuliya, Madhukulya,
an exogamous section of Baidyas ;
of Baruis and Nipits in Bengal,
a section of 84nkh£ris, Tintis,
Telis, and Subamabaniks in
Bengal ; of Kaibarttas in Central
Bengal ; of Sutradhars and
Bauris in Western Bengal; of
Khyins in Northern Bengal.

Madhu-Madak, a sub-oaste of
Madhunipits in BengaL

(jfft&bhutt&lttl, Madak , a confeotioner caste of Bengal Proper
Origin. w b° regard themselves as distinot from the

MayarA In explanation of their origin the
story is told that the religious reformer Chaitanya being one day in

Digitized by {jOOQie

MADHUNAPIT.

MADHUBISHI.

a hurry ordered two of his servants to shave him. They carried out
the command, but pointed out to their master that expulsion from
caste privileges was the penalty whioh their obedience had brought
upon them.. Ohaitanya accordingly bade them become confectioners
and make sweetmeats for him. Since that time their descendants
have followed the same trade, and their purity, according to Hindu
ideas, is such that even goddesses partake of the dainties they
prepare. Another more romantio version is that a barber named
Madhu, who was oalled in to shave the head of Ohaitanya on the
occasion of his becoming a Sannydsi, was so impressed with the
importance of the function he had performed that he asked to be
released from his hereditary profession ; for, he said, having touohed
the head of Ohaitanya, how could he cut the toe-nails of ordinary
men ? As Ohaitanya flourished about the beginning of the sixteenth
century, this legend would make the Madhundpit caste a comparatively
recent offshoot from the Ndpit. Suoh an origin, however, is not in
great favour among the members of the caste, who prefer to assume
a special act of creation.

The sub-castes and sections of the Madhundpit are shown in
Appendix I. Neither series throws any light
amago. upon the origin of the caste. A man may not

marry a woman belonging to his own seotion, nor one who stands
towards him in the religious relation of sapuida or samatiodaka.
Madhundpits marry their daughters as infants, forbid widows to
remarry, and do not recognize divorce. Although not mentioned by
name in the various couplets defining the Nava-Sdkha, the Madhu-
ndpit are generally admitted to belong to that group, and Brahmans
will take water from their hands. Considering that the Napit and
Madak are unquestionably members of the Nava-Sdkha group, and
the Madhundpit certainly derive their origin from one or other
of these castes, their title to be Nava-Sdkna seems to be beyond
dispute. Most of them are Vaishnavas by creed.

The Madhundpit, says Dr. Wise, is the most respected confectioner
in Eastern Bengal, for the caste Mayard or
ccupa ion. Madak is rarely met with, and the Halwai is
usually a Ghuldm Kdyasth, a Khontta Brahman, or a Kdndu.
They assume great airs, neither intermarrying with other oastes —
not even with barbers — nor shaving themselves. In former days
they would not fry sweetmeats in ghi or butter, but now they are
less fastidious. The common sweetmeats prepared by the Madhu-
ndpit are jalebi, amriti , khdjd y chhendperd , laddu, gaj&> and sar-bhdyd.
The delicacies offered to idols are pera, barfi, ildchi ddnd , batdsd , and
iandes.

The Madhundpit do not cultivate the soil, but are found employed
as writers, goldsmiths, grocers, doth merchants, and policemen.

MadhurA, a sub-caste of Bdb-
hans in Behar.

Madh liras, a totemistic sept
of Mundas in Chota Nagpur
who cannot eat honey.

Madh urasi Ark, a. pur or section
of Sdkadwipi Brahmans in
Behar.

Madhurishi, a
Mayards in Bengal.

section of

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MADHTTST.

MAGH.

Madhust, a section of Mag-
haiyA Kumhirs in Behar.

MadhwAI, a sept of BA j puts
in Behar.

MadhyabhAgt a samdj or
local group of the SAndilya goira
of the PAschAtya Baidik Brah-
mans in Bengal.

Madhya-bhAg or Madhyam-
kul, a sub-caste of HAns iu
Bengal.

MadhyagrAmi, a gUn of the
KAsyapa gotra of BArendra
Brahmans in Bengal.

Madhyakul, a grout) of the
Aswini TAntis in Bengal.

MadhyalA, a hypergamous
group of Jugis in BengaL

Madhyalya, a hypergamous
group of the Bangaja Kayasths.

Madhyam Kurmi, a sub-caste
of Kurmis in Manbhum.

Madhya-sreni, a sub-oaste of
Brahmans and KAyasths in West-
ern Bengal.

Madhyasreni KAyastha, a
sub-oaste of KAyasthas in Midna-
pur.

MAdowAn, a mul or section of
the Ghosin sub-caste of GoAlAs in
Behar.

Madrishii honey-bee, a totem-
istio section of Sunris in the

SantAl ParganAs and Man-
bhum.

Madrisi or Madhukulya, a
section of GoAlAs in BengaL

MAdura, Mddar , a contraction
of MahAdanda, a sub-caste of
Kewats in Behar who sell sdl
leaves and wood.

Mag, a synonym for Magh.

MAgadha, a territorial divi-
sion of Brahmans in Behar.

Magadha GoArA, a sub-caste
of GoAlAs in Orissa.

Magahgoriah , a variant for
Maghaya GoAlA or Maghaya
Gonrh.

MagahiyA, a sub-caste of
Dorns in North Behar, who are
cultivators and thieves, in Gya
basket-makers, and in Bengal
musicians and basket-makers ; a
sub-caste of DhAnuks, DosAdhs,
HajjAms in Behar, and of KAmArs
in Manbhum ; of KAndus, Tam-
bulis, KahArs, and ChamArs in
Behar ; and of MAls in the SantAl
ParganAs.

Magai or Magadhi, a sub-
caste of GoAlAs in Bengal.

Magar , a synonym for Man-
gar.

Maggah, a section of the
Tirhutiya sub-oaste of Dorns in
Behar.

Mag , the popular designation of a group of Indo-
Chinese tribes, who describe themselves by the
0ngin * various titles of Maramagri, BhuiyA Magh,

BaruA Magh, RAjbansi Magh, MarmA or Myam-ma, RoAng
Magh, Thongtha or JumiA Magh. Concerning the use and
derivation of the name Magh there has been much disoussion, and
the question cannot be considered as having been finally settled.

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MAGH.

Wilson, 1 followed by Ritter, 1 Fr. Muller,® and Colonel Yule, 4 defines
it as “ a name commonly applied to the natives of Arakan, parti-
cularly those bordering on Bengal or residing near the sea, — the
people of Chittagong. Sir Arthur Phayre, quoted by Colonel
Yule, derives the name from “ Mag a, the name of the ruling race
for many centuries in Magadha (modem Behar). The lings of
Aral an were no doubt originally of this race; for though this is
not distinctly expressed in the histories of Arakan, there are several
legends of kings from Benares reigning in that country, and one,
regarding a Brahman, who marries a native princess and whose
descendants reign for a long period.” Dalton 5 appears to take much
the same view regarding the Arakanese as an outlying branch of the
Burmese, and adding that the name Magh is exclusively a foreign
epithet, unknown to the Arakanese themselves. Mantegazza 6 follows
Dalton on the whole, but seems to look upon the term Magh as
rather a tribal name than the general designation of the people who
inhabit a particular tract of oountry.

In its actual use at the present day the term Magh includes
. A A ^ three endogamous groups: 7 the Thongtha,
internal struc Thongcha, or Jumid Magh; 8 the Marma,

Myamma, Ro&ng or Rakhaing Magh; 9 and the M&ramagri,
otherwise known as R&jbansi, Barud, or BhuiyA Magh. The
first and second have been described by Lewin under the name
Khyoungtha or ‘ children of the river,’ a designation based upon
locality and not corresponding to any real tribal distinction. Both
the Jumid and the Hoang Maghs probably belong to the same
original stock, but the former have so long been settled in the Chit-
tagong oountry that they regard themselves as the aborigines of the
Hill Tracts, while the latter belong to a more recent stream of
immigrants from Arakan.* The physical characteristics of both
tribes are unmistakeably Mongolian. Their stature is low, the faoo
broad and flat, cheekbones hign and wide, nose flat and bridgeless,

1 Glossary, s.v. Magh.

* Erd-Kunde, v, 324.

* Allgemeine Ethnographic, 405.

4 Anglo-Indian Glossary, s.v. Mugg.

8 Ethnology of Bengal, 112.

8 Studii suuEtndogia delV India, p. 331.

7 Hill Tracts of Chxttagona, p. 36.

* Some remarks on the defects of Captain Lewin’s classification of the
hill tribes into Khyoungtha and Toungtha will be found in the article on
Chakma above. To those objections it should be added that the classes Khy-
oungtha and Tonngtha do not appear to be mutually exclusive. Captain
Lewin himself states (p. 37) that “ Khyoungtha means those who inhabit the
banks of mountain streams and support themselves by hill cultivation;"
and if this definition be accepted, it is difficult to see how the line between the
two classes should be drawn.

* Ro&ng seems to be a corruption of Rakhaing, the indigenous name for
the Arakan country or its inhabitants. Arakan, again, is the European form
of Rakhaing or Eakhang. Colonel Yule (Anglo-Indian Glossary, art. Arakan)
thinks that we may have got Arakan through the Malay, but the early
connexion of the Arabs with Chittagong seems to justify the conjecture that
the word may be simply Al-Rakhang.

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magh.

and eyes small with eyelids obliquely set ; 1 while according to Lewin
the men have neither beard nor moustache. The Maramagri or
R&jbansi Magh are of an entirely different type. They are
supposed by Colonel Phayre to be “ the offspring of Bengali women
by Burmans when the latter possessed Chittagong and this theory
of their origin is borne out by the fact that their exogamous septs
are similar to those of the Thongtha and Marm&. All external
indications of their Mongolian descent have, however, been obliterated
by generations of intermarriage with the non-Aryan Bengalis of
Chittagong and Noakhali; and the R&jbansi Maghs, who are
largely employed as oooks in Calcutta, have the glossy black
oomplexion, wavy hair, and abundant beard and moustache whioh
characterise the lower castes of Eastern Bengal. It [may be added
that their somewhat insolent bearing and excitable manner of speech
complete the oontrast with the stolid, but amiable Mongolians, from
whom they are remotely descended.

The septs of the three sub-tribes are shown in Appendix I.
Most of them, as Lewin has pointed out, appear to be the names of
the rivers on which the original settlements of the sept were situated.
They observe the simple rule that a man may not marry a woman of
his own sept, supplemented by a table of prohibited degrees, whioh
does not differ materially from that arrived at by the standard
formula already often referred to. In applying these prohibitions,
however, there seems to be some laxity where descent is traced
through females, for I am informed that a man may marry the
daughters of his father’s sister and of his mother’s brother — a
connexion whioh would not ordinarily be allowed.

The Maramagri marry their daughters either as infants or as
adults, and there is some tendenoy among them
amage ’ to regard the former usage as more respeotable

from the social point of view. Marmis and Thongchas adhere to the
more primitive custom of adult-marriage, and more or less expressly
tolerate sexual intercourse as one of the necessary incidents of pre-
matrimonial courtship. Their marriage ceremony, says Lewin,* “is
distinctive and unoommon. On a young man attaining a marriage-
able age, that is, about 17 to 18, his parents look about for some
young girl who would be a good wife to him, unless, as is more
often the case, he has fixed upon a partner for himself. Having
determined upon a suitable match, a male relative of the family is
sent off to the girl’s parents to arrange matters. .On arriving at
their village he proceeds to the house, and before going up the
house ladder he gives the usual salutation, with both hands joined
and raised to the forehead. ‘ OqaUa he says, ‘ a boat has come
to your landing place ; will you bind it or loose it ?’ A favourable
response is given, and he then goes up into the house. On seating
himself he asks, ‘Are the supports of the house firm?’ If the

1 The apparent obliquity of the Mongolian eye is due to a peculiar confor-
mation of me eyelids, and does not extend to the orbit itself. See Topinard,
Eldmentt d' Anthropologic GdnSrale , p. 998.

* Mill Tract* of Chittagong , p. 49.

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MAGH.

answer is , 1 They are firm/ it is favourable, and matters may then
be more fully entered into. The affair is taken into consideration,
and he returns to his own village to report good progress to the bride-
groom’s parents, and to request them to fix a day for taking the
omens. On the appointed day the parents meet, the young people
being supposed to know nothing of all this. A fowl is killed by the
fathers, its tongue taken out, and, acoordingto certain marks thereon,
the matter is pronounced good or bad. The bridegroom’s parents
sleep for the night at the house of the intended bride, and all parties
look anxiously for dreams by which to foretell the happiness or the
reverse of the union. On going away, should everything be propi-
tious, their intended daughter kneels at their feet for a blessing, and
they present her with a new pettiooat and a silver ring. Learned
persons are then called in, who, by consulting the stars and oasting
the nativity of the parties, determine a favourable day and hour when
the ceremony shall be undertaken. Meantime the parents on both
sides prepare pigs and spirits, rice and spioes, unlimi ted, for the
marriage feast. They also send round to all their kith and kin
a fowl and a letter giving notioe of the intended marriage ; in some
places a pice or copper coin is substituted for the fowl. On the
auspicious day, and at the hour appointed, the bridegroom and all his
relatives set out for the bride’s house, dressed in the gayest oolours,
both men and women, with drums beating before them. On arriving
at the entrance of the village the female relatives of the bride bar
the approach with a bamboo. Across this barrier the bridegroom
has to drink a loving oup of fraternity, generally spirits, Should
the females on the bride’s side muster strong, the road will probably
be barred five or six times before the entry into the village is fairly
made. The bridegroom, however, does not drink all that is given
him, but after taking the liquor in his mouth he is allowed to eject it
again upon the ground.

“ In the village, on some open turfy spot, a number of bamboo
booths have been erected, adorned with flowers and green boughs, and
filled with materials for feasting. Here also sit an opposition party
of drummers, and mighty is the row as the bridegrooms party defiles
on to this spot. A separate and specially beautified booth has been
erected for the young lover and his parents, and here thev sit in state
and receive visits from all the village. The bride in like manner,
surrounded by her near relatives, sits in her father’s house. The boys
of the village, irrepressible as is the wont of that speoies, make raids
upon both parties, for the purpose of chaffing and getting alternate
feasts of comestibles. They also organize an amateur band of musio,
and serenade the bride towards evening with fiddles and flutes. Of
course, all the girls of the village are congregated at the bride’s
father’s house, and, as license and riot are the order of the day, the
fun here grows fast and furious. Towards nightfall the bridegroom
ascends to his bride’s house amid a tempest of cheers and a hailstorm
of drums. After this outburst a temporary lull ensues, to permit of
the ceremony being performed. The bride is brought forth from an
inner chamber in the arms of the women. On the floor of the house
are placed water in jars, rice, and mango leaves. Bound these

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HIGH.

a new^spun ootton-thread is wound and carried again round the two
contracting parties as they stand opposite to each other. The ‘poong-
yee,* or priest, now oomes forward ; he recites some prayers in a
language that is not understood even by himself (probably Pali), and
theu taking oooked rioe, a handful in eaoh hand, he crosses and
recrosses his arms, giving seven alternate mouthfuls to the bride
and bridegroom ; after this he takes their hands and crooks the little
finger of the bridegroom’s right hand into the little finger of the
bride’s left. The oeremony is then concluded by more unintelligible
mutterings. The bridegroom now takes the bride by the hand, and
together they make the oircuit of the room, saluting lowly the elder
relatives of both families. They then sit down — the bride to the left
of her husband, and their clothes are tied together. The wedding
guests then come forward and place at their feet, each according to
his or her means, some presents of olothes or household furniture.
After this a saturnalia ensues, of dancing, drinking, fighting, and
love-making. The bride and bridegroom are expected to sit up all
night. I should add that the happy man does not consummate his
marriage until he and his wife (sleeping apart) have for seven days
eaten together seven times a day.”

The bride-prioe among Thongphaa and Mannas is said to be
about Us. 30. With the Maramagris, who as a class are wealthier,
the average amount paid for a wife is Rs. 60, whioh may rise to
Rs. 80 if the bridegroom is of inferior status, as, for example, in the
event of a BhuiyA Magh marrying the daughter of a Rijbansi Magh.
The ceremony in use among the M&ramagris is of the same general
character as that described above, the essential portion being the
crooking together of the little fingers of the bridegroom’s left hand
and the bride’s right, while the priest pours water over the hands
thus joined. This is followed by stndurdan or smearing vermilion
on the bride’s forehead — a form whioh appears to have been
borrowed from the Hindus. The Marmd ritual is still more like
that of the Thongchas, and does not include sindurdan. In the
course of the wedding the bride and bridegroom eat some ourry
and rice from the same dish, and what they leave is kept in a covered
earthen vessel for seven days, during whioh time the married couple
may not leave the village or cross running water. On the eighth
the vessel is opened, and if maggots are found in the food it is deemed
an excellent omen, showing that the marriage will be a fruitful one.

Polygamy is recognized : a man may have as many wives as
he can afford to maintain. The first wife, however, is regarded as
the highest in rank, and takes precedence of all subsequent wives,
who are expeoted to treat her with special consideration.

In all the sub-tribes widows are allowed to marry again, and
are fettered by no restrictions in their choice of a second husband.
No special ritual is ordained for this purpose, and as a rule
the parties simply go and live together as man and wife. Divoroe
is permitted, with the sanction of the tribal panchdyat, on the ground
of adultery or inability to live happily together. A written
agreement is usually drawn up, and sometimes, when the authority
of the panohdyat is deemed insufficient, this “ writing of divorcement ”

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MAGH.

is laid before theMagistrate of the distriot Among the Thongchas
the parties giveone another flowers, and after bathing go off in
different directions, exchanging all kinds of abusive epithets.
Divorced wives may marry again by the ritual in use lor the
remarriage of widows.

Ail Maghs are Buddhists of the Southern school, and regard
. the northern Buddhists of Tibet as wholly

tMiglotL unorthodox. The wilder sections of the Thong-

chas, however, retain some vestiges of an earlier animistic faith,
which bids them saorifioe cattle, goats, and swine, and make offerings
of rice, fruits, and flowers to the spirits of hill and river. Among
the Maramagris, on the other hand, the tendenoy is to follow after
modem Hinduism, particularly in its Tantrio developments, and to
add the gross worship of Siva and Durga to the simple observances
prescribed by their own communion, it thus comes to pass that
while the Buddhist Phungyis or Raolis are the reoognized priests of
all the tribes, considerable respect is shown to Brahmans, who are
frequently employed to determine auspioious days for particular
actions, and to assist in the worship of the Hindu gods. Among
the Thongchas old women often devote themselves to the service of
religion, and although not charged with special oeremonial functions,
are regarded as in some sense priestesses, and are called by the
distinctive name lerdama.

The funeral ceremonies of the Maghs are thus described by

yv. | m ii % • Lewin : — “ When a person has died, his rela-

Disposai of the dead. ^ aMemUk Some one of them sits down

and oommenoes to beat the funeral roll on the drum; the women
weep and ory, and the men busy themselves, some in performing the
last offices to the oorpse, of washing, dressing, etc., while others go
off to the woods and bring wood for the funeral pile, and bamboos
with which to construct the bier. About 24 hours generally elapse
from the time of death to that of cremation. In bearing the corpse
from the house to the burning ground, if the deceased were a man
of wealth or influence, the body may be borne on a wheeled oar ; all
women also have this privilege ; the plebs, however, are simply
carried to the funeral pile on the shoulders of their relatives. The
procession is after this fashion : — First oome the priests, if there are
any in the vicinity to attend ; they march gravely at the head of
the party, bearing on their shoulders their curved palm-leaf fans,
olad in their ordinary saffron-ooloured robes, and attended by their
disoiples. Next oome relatives of the deoeased, two and two,
bearing food, clothes, etc., whioh have been offered as alms to the
priests on behalf of the departed. Next is borne the bier, carried on
bamboos by six men, and accompanied by as many drums as can be
procured. Behind the ooffin come the male relatives ; and lastly,
the procession is dosed by the women of the village, dad in their
best. The funeral pile is oomposed of four layers of wood for
a woman, three for a man. The body is plaoed on the pile ; the lead-
ing priest takes an end of the dead man’s turban, and, holding it,
repeats some passages of the law, four of the deoeased’s male relatives
standing meanwhile at the four comers of the pile and sprinkling

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MAGH.

a few drops of water thereon. The nearest blood relative, male
or female, of the dead man then fires the pile. When the fire
is extinguished the ashes are scrupulously collected together
and buried over the spot; a small oonical mound of earth is
heaped up, and a very long bamboo pole, with an equally lengthy
flag, is erected over the grave. On returning from the place all
parties bathe themselves. If it is the master of the house who
has died, the ladder leading up to the house is thrown down,
and they must effect an entrance by cutting a hole in the baok wall
and so creeping up. The relatives eat and drink, and each
contributes according to his means to defray the expenses incurred.
After seven days the priests reassemble at the house to read prayers
for the dead.”

In the case of priests and persons of high social position the
oorpse is dried or embalmed and kept for a year in a special coffin,
while arrangements are being made for an elaborate funeral, which
usually takes place on the 1st of Baisakh. A temporary pagoda is
built of bamboo decorated with coloured paper and nags, and is set up
in some open plaoe faced by a row of bamboo cannon mounted on
wheels, crammed to the muzzle with tightly-rammed powder and
fitted with a long fuse. These oannon are presented by persons
desirous of doing honour to the deceased, and it is deemed an act of
great merit to send a oannon to the funeral of a Phungyi. On the
arrival of the coffin a mimic conflict— a * tug of war ’ — takes place over
it, the women pulling it one way and the men the other. According
to another account the contest is not between the men and the
women, but between the unmarried and married persons of either
sex. The ooffin is then placed in the pagoda, and the bamboo
cannon are discharged in order of the precedence of those who
presented them. Last of all the pagoda and coffin are burned, and
a long bamboo, carrying a triangular flag forty-five feet long, is set
up on the place. A funeral offering (kongmu) of various kinds of
food is placed on the ground on the eighth day, and this ceremony is
repeated every year.

The social status of the Maghs does not admit of very precise

R .... definition, as the entire community is outside

■ ocia. -tft ua. 0 j the regular caste system, and orthodox

Hindus will take neither food nor water from their hands. In the
matter of diet they are highly promiscuous, eating beef, pork, fowls,
fish of all kinds, snakes, field-rats, lizards, and certain kinds of
worms. Both sexes indulge freely in spirituous liquors. For all
this they are not wholly free from prejudice as to the caste of the
persons with whom they will take food; and no Maghs, except
those who are fishermen themselves, will eat, drink, or 6moke in the
same hookah with members of the fishing castes, such as Kaibarttas
and Milos, or with the Jugi caste of weavers. Tantis and Nipits,
on the other hand, are considered ceremonially pure, and Maghs
will take water from their hands.

The Thongoha sub-tribe live almost entirely by the peculiar
method of cultivation known in Chittagong,
Assam, and Northern Bengal by the name

Occupation.

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MAGH.

jhim; in Burm&h and Arakan as tungyd; and in Chota Nagpur
and the Central Frovinoes called ddhd or pardo. Captain Lewin
describes the system as follows : —

“In the month of April a convenient piece of forest land is
n. « fixed upon, generally on a hillside, the

Jham cultivation. luxuriant un der-growth of shrubs and creepers

has to be cleared away, and the smaller trees felled : the trees of
larger growth are usually denuded of their lower branohes, and left
standing. If possible, however, the jhumia fixes upon a slope
thickly covered with a bamboo jungle of the species called * dolloo.*
This compared with a dense tree jungle is easy to cut, and its ashes,
after burning, are of greater fertilising power. Although the
clearing of a patch of dense jungle is no doubt very severe labour,
yet the surroundings of the labourer render his work pleasurable in
comparison with the toilsome and dirty task of the cultivators of the
plains. ***•*•

By his comparatively pleasurable toil the hill-man can gain two
rupees for one which the wretched ryot of the plains can painfully
earn, and it is not to be wondered at that the hill people have
a passion for their mode of life, and regard with absolute oontempt
any proposal to settle down to the tame and monotonous cultivation
of the dwellers in the low-lands.

“ The jhum land once cleared, the fallen jungle is left to dry in
the sun, and in the month of May it is fired : this completes the
clearing. The firing of the jhums is sometimes a source of danger,
as at that season of the year the whole of the surrounding jungle is
as dry as tinder and easily catches fire. In this way sometimes
whole villages are destroyed, and people have lost their lives. I
have myself seen a whole mountain-side on fire for four. days and
four nights, having been ignited by j hum-firing. It was a magni-
ficent sight, but such a fire must cause incalculable injury to the
forest : young trees especially would be utterly destroyed. Gener-
ally, however, by choosing a calm day, and keeping down the fire at
the edges of the jhum, by beating with boughs, the hill people
manage to keep the firing within certain prescribed limits. A
general conflagration, suoh as I have mentioned, is of quite excep-
tional occurrence. If the felled jungle has been thoroughly dried,
and no rain has fallen since the jhum was cut, this firing will reduce
all, save the larger forest trees, to ashes, and bum the soil to
the depth of an inch or two. The oharred trees and logs pre-
viously cut down remain lying about the ground : these have to
be dragged off the jhum and piled up all round, and with the
addition of some brushwood form a speoies of fence to keep out wild
animals.

“Work is now at a standstill, till the gathering of the
heavy clouds and the grumbling of thunder denote the approach
of the rains. These signs at onoe bring a village into a state
of activity; men and women, boys and girls, each bind on the
left hip a small basket filled with the mixed seeds of cotton, rice,
melons, pumpkins, yams, and a little Indian com; each takes

c 2

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MAGH.

a 4 dad n in hand, and in a short time every hillside will eoho to the
4 hoiya,’ or hillcall (a ory like the 8wiss jodel), as party answers party
from the paths winding up each hillside to their respective patches of
cultivation. Arrived at the j hum, the family will form a line, and
steadily work their way across the field. A dig with the blunt square
end of the da6 makes a narrow hole about three inches deep : into this
is put a small handful of the mixed seeds, and the sowing is completed.
If shortly afterwards the rain falls, they are fortunate and have judged
the time well ; or (unparalleled luck) if they get wet through with the
rain as thev are sowing, great will be the jollification on the return
home, this being an omen that a bumper season may be expected.

44 The village now is abandoned by every one, and the men set to
work to build a house, each in his own jhum, for the crop must be
carefully watched to preserve it from tue wild pig and deer, which
would otherwise play havoo among the young shoots of the rice.
The jhums of the whole village are generally situated in propin-
quity : a solitary jhum is very rare. During the rains mutual help
and assistance in weeding the crop is giveu ; each one takes his turn
to help in his neighbour’s jhum ; no hoeing is done ; the crop has
merely to be kept dear from weeds by hand labour, and an ample
return is obtained. If the rain be excessive, however, the cotton orop
is liable to be spoilt, as the young plants die from too much water.

44 The first thing to ripen is Indian oorn ; this is about the end of
July. Next come the melons, of which there are two or three sorts
grown in the jhums : afterwards vegetables of all sorts become fit for
gathering ; and finally, in September, the rice and other grain ripens.
At this time the monkeys and jungle fowl are the ohief enemies
of the orop. In the month of October the ootton crop is gathered
last of all, and this concludes the harvest. The rice having been out,
is beaten from the ear in the jhum : it is afterwards rolled up in
rough, straw-oovered bales and carried to the granary in the village.

1 “ The * dad* is the hill knife, used universally throughout the country.
It is a blade about 18 inches long, narrow at the haft, and square and broad
at the tip ; pointless, and sharpened on one side only. The blade is set in a
handle of wood ; a bamboo root is considered the best. The fighting * dad' is
differently shaped. This is a long pointless sword, set in a wooden or ebony
handle ; it is very heavy, and a blow of almost incredible power can be given
by one of these weapons. With both the fighting and the ordinary dad one
can make but two cuts ; one from the right shoulder downwards to the left,
one from the left foot upwards to the right. The reason of this is that in shar-
pening the blade one side only gives the edge, slanting to the other straight
face or the blade. Any attempt to cut in a way contrary to those mentioned
causes the dad to turn in the hand on the striker, and I have seen some bad
wounds inflicted in this manner. The weapon is identical with the “ parang
latok ” of the Malays. The ordinary hill dad is generally stuck naked into the
waist-band on the right hip, but the fighting dad is provided with a scabbard
and worn at the waist. The dad to a hillman is a possession of great price. It
is literally the bread-winner. With this he cuts his jhum and builds his houses ;
without its aid the most ordinary operations of hill life could not be performed.
It is with the dad that he fashions the women’s weaving tools ; with the dad
he fines off his boat ; with the dad he notches a stair in the steep hillside
leading to his ihum ; and to the dad he frequently owes his life, in defending
himself from the attacks of wild animals.”

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MAGH.

MAGHJHX

Besides grain and ootton, the hill tribes grow tobaooo. This is
planted principally in small valleys on the banks of the hill streams.”
In order to scare birds, deer, and wild pigs from the growing
crop, a deft bamboo is planted in the middle and connected by a
long cane with the hut built for watching the orop in suoh a manner
that by pulling the cane the two halves of the bamboo can be clashed
together and a harsh rattling noise produced.

The Marmds and Maramagris have for the most part adopted
a settled mode of life and taken to plough cultivation. They also
catch and sell fish, hew wood, dug-out canoes, and weave baskets
and mats. The Rdjbansi Maghs are accomplished oooks, and are
largely employed by Europeans in that capacity. As a rule they take
a keen interest in their profession, and it may be that their skill is in
some measure due to their freedom from the sooial and religious
prejudices which debar other classes of native cooks from tasting the
dishes which they prepare.

MaghA Chewdr, a mul or
section of the Satmulia or Kish-
naut sub-caste of Godlds in
Behar.

Maghad Khandi, a sub-caste
of Telis in Bengal.

Maghaid, a sept of Lohdrs in
Chota Nagpur.

Maghaiyd, a sub-caste of
Kumhdrs and Telis in Behar
and Chota Nagpur.

Maghayd, a native of Mag-hd
(Magadha) or South Behar; a
designation of numerous sub-
oastes, suoh as Barai, Beldar,
barber, Dhanuk, Dhobi, Gangotd,
Godld, Kandu, Nunia, Sunri,
and Teli castes in Behar ; a sub-
caste of Barhis in Behar who
work in both wood and iron
and do the rougher woodwork
required for houses, as distin-
guished from the Kanaujids, who
are joiners and cabinet-makers.
Representatives of this sub-caste
are found both in the town of
Bhdgalpur and in the north of
the district, but intermarriage
between the twogrouns is believed
to be rare. The headman of
the former is styled S&tun , while
the headman of the latter bears
the usual title of Mary'han ;

a sub -caste of Bhars in Man-
bhum, comprising the five sections
of Mayur, Bel, Bdsrisi, Kdsyab,
and Brdhmarshi, of which the
first four are totemistic and the
last appears to have been bor-
I rowed from the Brahmans ; a sub-
cast e of Dorns in Behar who play
the dhol and turi; a sub-caste of
Halwdis or confectioners in Behar,
who have to some extent aban-
doned their distinctive occupation
and find employment as servants
and petty shopkeepers dealing in
miscellaneous artioles. Many of
them fry rice, chura, etc., and are
called bhuja bhwra ; a sub-caste of
Koiris in Behar, which, though
endogamous as regards the rest
of the caste, intermarries with the
Chirme or Ghirmdit sub-caste;
a sub-caste of Kumhdrs in Behar
and Western Bengal, which used
formerly to be endogamous, but
now intermarries with the Tirhutid
sub-caste ; a sub-caste of Thatherd
or brass^ohaser in Behar.

Maghayd Brahman , a synonym
for Bdbhan.

Maghi, a sept of Ohiks in
Chota Nagpur.

Maghnft, a sept of Lohdrs in
Chota Nagpur.

Digitized by ^.oosle

MAGI.

MATTATtr

Magi | a sub-oaste of Kumh&rs
in Daoca and Tdntis in Bengal ;
a sub-caste of Biitis in
Faridpur.

Magrathi, a thar or sept of
Mangars in Darjiling.

Maguri, a title of Bangaja
K&yasths in Bengal.

Mahabara, atotemistio sept of
Chits in Chota Nagpur who
never till or chase the wild
boar.

Mahabh&t, a section of the
Kamir sub-caste of Dos&dhs in
Behar.

Mahdbrahman, Mahdp&tra
or Kantdha, a division of Brah-
mans in Behar who officiate as
priests on cremation.

Mah&danda, a sub-caste of
Kewats in Behar.

Mah&danta, a title of Brah-
mans.

# Mah&jan, money-lender, a
title of the Ari&r sub-oaste of
Bais Baniyis.

Mdhakaridi a seotion of
Go&l&s in the North-Western
Provinces and Behar.

Mahal&i a section of Go&l&s
in the North-Western Provinces
and Behar.

Mahald&r, a title of men who
measure grain for Mahajdns, also
called. Kayals ; a title of Jaunpuri
Cham&rs and Muchis in Behar
whose women act as midwives;
a title of certain Musalmans, also
called Pajr&, who sell fish and
are boatmen.

Mahal i, a synonym for
Mahili; a sept of Loh&rs in
Chota Nagpur.

Mahal i-Munda, a sub-tribe
of Mundas in Chota Nagpur;
a sept of Loh&rs in Chota
Nagpur.

Mahal l&-navis, an honorary
title of K&yasths in Bengal.

Mah&mand&i a seotion of
the MahmudAb&z sub-caste of
N&pits in Central Bengal.

Mah&nadi, a river, a sept of
Bediyas and Chits in Chota
Nagpur.

Mah&nadi&t a sept of Gonds
in Chota Nagpur.

Mah&n&ik or Sreshta-Khan-
ddit , a sub-caste of Khand&its in
Balasore and Cuttaok.

Mahdnandid, a sept of Pins
in Chota Nagpur.

Mah&ni, a title of Timbulis,
Telia, and other trading castes.

Mahant , S. ; the head of a reli-
gious establishment of the men-
dicant orders of the Hindus.

Mahanta, a priest of the Jugi
oaste in Tipperah; a spiritual
guide in the Y aishnava seot ; a title
of Kurmis in Western Bengal.

Mahant i i itahinti , a titular
section of TJtkal or Orissa Brah-
mans; a title of Ch&s&s and
Karans in Orissa.

Mah&p&tra, a hypergamous
group of the Bangaja sub-oaste
of K&yasths in Bengal; a title
of Brahmans and Karans in
Orissa; a title of Khand&its in
Chota Nagpur.

Mahar, a section of Go&l&s in
Behar.

Mahar&, a title of the Dhusii
sub-caste of Chamars ; a title of
Kahars in Behar who carry
palanquins and wort as boatmen.

Digitized by ^.oosle

MAH ARAL

MAHDAURIAR.

Mahdrdi, a title oi Eurinis in •
Behar.

Mahdrdj, a title affeoted by
certain mendioants and Brah-
mans ; a title of respeot applied
to Behar Brahmans who are
employed as cooks.

Mahdr&nd, a title of Ndgars
in Behar.

Mah&rdno, a mul or section of
the Naomulid or Majraut sub-
caste of Goalds in Behar.

Mahdrdshtra, a thar or seotion
of Nepdli Brahmans.

Mahdr&shtriya, a territorial
division of the Panoha Drdvira
Brahmans who live in the south
of the Vindyd range, a country
of the Marathi language.

Mahdrath or Mahdrathi , great
charioteer, a title of Khanddits |
in Orissa.

Mah&raus, a . sept of^ . the
Suryabansi sub-tribe of Rajputs
in Behar.

Mahamd, a section of Kewats
in Behar.

Mahdset, a group of Ma-
ghaiyd Telis and Sunris in Behar.

Mahdsib, literally ‘an account-
ant, 9 a section of the Maghayd
sub-caste of Telis ; a title of Sunris
in Behar.

Mahasthdn, Mastdn or Hdlid,
a sub-caste of Utkal Brahmans
in Orissa.

Mahat, a sub-caste of Goalas
in Chota Nagpur; a title of up-
country Brahmans and of some
trading castes; a title of the
Koehh tribe in Northern Bengal.

Mdhdtd, a title of Ehatris in
Bengal.

Mahdthd, a seotion of
Maghaiyd Kumhdrs in Behar.

Mahathwdr, a seotion of the
Chamdr and Bhuiya castes.

Mahdtmd, a mul ojp section^ of
the Ghosin sub- caste of Goalas ;
a section of the Chaubhan sub-
caste of Nunias and a section
of the Banodhid and Jaiswdr
Kalwdrs in Behar.

Mahdtman, a section of the
Maghayd sub-caste of Kumhdrs
in Behar.

Mahato, a title of Goalds,
Kurmis, Koiris, Kahdrs, Kum-
hdrs, Raj wars, Dhdnuks, Mun-
das, Chiks or Pins and Pdsis ; a
sept of Oraons in Chota Nagpur.

Mahatoar, a sept of Pdns
and Agarias in Chota Nagpur.

Mahaulid, a seotion of
Kaserds in Behar.

Mahaut, a sept of Thdrus in
Behar.

M&hbarid* a kul or section of
Bdbhans in Behar.

Mahbho, a sept of the Yan-
gorup sub-tribe of Limbus in
Darjiling ; branoh of the same
sept may not intermarry.

IVIahbu, the physician, literally
a shaker*— one who, being ridden
by ghosts or devils, shakes him-
self free : hence a physician ; a
sept of the Charkola sub-tribe of
Tim bus in Darjiling.

Mahdauridr, a pur or section
of Sdkadwipi Brahmans in
Behar.

Digitized by {jOOQie

mahendba khyxni.

MAHILI.

Mahendra Khy&ni, a group
of the Bdrendra Sunns in Eastern
Bengal.

M&hepur&i a mul or section of
the Chhamulia Madhesia sub-caste
of Halwdis in Behar.

Maher, a section of KumhArs
in Singbhum.

Mahesbar&it, a section of the
Kam&r sub-caste of Dos&dhs in
Behar.

(Jfftakcsri, a trading caste of
Northern India and Marwar,
olosely allied to the Agarwils
and Osw&ls with whom they eat
and drink. Like the Agarwals,
they have a sub-caste called Das&,

said to be illegitimate and per-
haps coming of slave mothers.
The Maheen are almost invari-
ably Hindus, while the Agarwil
and Oswil castes oontain a
large proportion of Jains. . They
have 72 exogamous subdivisions
( pots ), a few of whioh are shown
in Appendix I. like the Agar-
wAls, they observe a oomplex
rule of exogamy. A man may
not marry into (a) his own
seotion, (6) his mother's, (c) his
maternal grandmother’s, ( d ) his
father’s maternal grandmother’s,
(*) his mother's maternal grand-
mother’s.

Maheswar, a pur or section of
S&kadwipi Brahmans, and of
Maghaiyi Kumhdrs in Behar.

^Kahili, Mahali , a Dra vidian oaste of labourers, palanquin-
^ bearers, and workers in bamboo found in

■troatuw. aD mterna Chota Nagpur and Western Bengal. They
are divided into five sub-castes — Bansphor-
Mahili, who make baskets and do all kinds of bamboo work ; P&tar-
Mahili, basket-makers and cultivators; Sulunkhi-Mahili, who are
cultivators and labourers; T&nti-Mahili, who carry palanquins; and
Mahili-Munda, a small outlying sub-caste oonfined to LohardagA A
comparison of the totemistio sections of the Mahilifl shown in Appendix
I with those of the Santals seems to weurant the conjecture that the
main body of the oaste, that is to say the group comprising the
Bansphor, Sulunkhi, and Tanti Mahilis, is merely a branch of the
Santdls, separated at a comparatively reoent date from the parent
tribe. The exact oauses of the separation are, of course, lost in the
obscurity which enshrouds the early history of all tribal movements.
But the fact that the Mahilis make baskets and oarry palanquins,
occupations which every Sant4l would deem degrading, suggests
that the adoption of these pursuits may have given the first impulse
to the formation of the new group. The Mahili-Munda possibly
parted from the Munda tribe for similar reasons. Besides the
sections shown in the Appendix the entire sub-oaste regard the pig
as their totem, and consider it wrong to eat pork. It is rumoured,
indeed, that appetite often gets the better of tradition, but that
in such cases the carcase alone is eaten, and the consequences
of breaking - the taboo averted by throwing away the head.
The P&tar-Mahili are a Hinduised sub-caste of South-East
Manbhum, who employ Brahmans as priests and abstain from
eating beef.

Digitized by LjOOQle

MAHILI.

A man may not marry a woman of his own seotion or of
the seotion to which his mother belonged before her marriage.
Beyond these limits marriage is regulated with reference to the
standard formula for prohibited degrees.

Mahilis marry their daughters both as infants and as adults,
but the former practice is deemed the more
amaga respectable, and there can, I think, be little

doubt that in this, as in other oastes on the borders of Hinduism,
the tendency at the present day is towards the entire abolition of
adult-marriage. The oustomary bride-price paid for a Mahili girl
is supposed to be Rs. 6, but the amount is liable to vary according
to the means of the bridegroom’s parents. On the wedding
morning, before the usual procession starts to esoort the bridegroom
to the bride’s house, he is formally married to a mango tree, while
the bride goes through the same ceremony with a mahua. At the
entrance to the bride’s house the bridegroom, riding on the shoulders
of some male relation ana bearing on his head a vessel of water, is
reoeived by the bride’s brother, equipped in similar fashion, and the
two cavaliers sprinkle one another with water. The bride and
bridegroom are then seated side by side on a plank under a canopy
of s&l leaves erected in the oourtyard of the house, and the bride-
groom touohes the bride’s forehead five times with vermilion, and
presents her with an iron armlet. This is the binding portion of
the ritual.

So far as positive rules are oonoemed, the Mahilis appear to
impose no limit on the number of wives a man may have. It
is unusual to find a man with more than two ; and praotically,
I understand, polygamy is rarely resorted to unless the first wife
should happen to be barren. Widows may remarry, and are under
no restrictions in their choioe of a second husband, though it is
deemed right and proper for a widow to marry her deceased husband’s
younger brother if suoh a relative exists. Divoroe is permitted on
the ground of adultery or inability to agree. When a husband
divorces his wife he gives her a rupee and takes away the iron
armlet (Mar khdru) which was given her at her wedding. He must
also entertain his caste brethren at a feast by way of obtaining their
sanction to the proceedings. Divoroed wives may marry agaiu.

Like the Bauris and B&gdis, the Mahilis admit into their caste
men of any oaste ranking higher than their own. The conditions
of membership are simple. The person seeking admission into the
Mahili community has merely to pay a small sum to the headman
( parganait) of the caste and to give a feast to the Mahilis of the
neighbourhood. This feast he must attend himself, and signify his
entrance into the brotherhood by tasting a portion of the food
left by each of the guests on the leaf whioh on these occasions
serves as a plate.

In matters of inheritance and succession the Mahilis profess to
follow whatever law applies to the Hindus of
the locality— the Dayabh&ga in Manbbum and
the Mitakshara in Lohardagi. Statements of this kind, however,
import little more than a vague assumption of oonformity with

Inheritance.

Digitized by

Google

mahili.

what is supposed to be the custom of all respeotable men ; and there
is no reason to believe that the headman ( pargandit ) and caste-
council ( panchdyat ), who settle the civil disputes of the caste, haye
any knowledge of, or pay the smallest regard to, the rules of the
regular Hindu law. The questions whioh come before this primitive
tribunal are usually very simple. Its decisions are accepted without
question, and I know of no instanoe where -an attempt has been
made to oorrect them by appealing to the regular oourts. It does
not follow, however, that Mahilis and castes of similar standing
have escaped the influence of the Codes and have preserved a distinct
customary law of their own. On the oontrary, the written law
certainly filters down to these lower grades of society, not through
the regular channels of text-books and oourts, but in virtue of their
tendenoy to imitate the usages of the groups immediately above
themselves. If men of these lower castes are asked what law they
follow, a common answer is that they have the same law as their
landlords ; and the landlords, to whatever caste they may belong,
almost invariably £et their law from the text-books and the oourts.
To this influence it is probably due that the practice of giving an
extra share ( jeth-angs ) to the eldest son in dividing an inheritance
is gradually dying out among the Mahilis, and the tendenoy is
towards an equal division of property.

The religion of the Mahilis is at present a mixture of half-
. forgotten animism and Hinduism imperfectly

hglon * understood. They affect indeed to worship all

the Hindu gods, but they have not yet risen to the distinction of
employing Brahmans, and their working deities seem to be Bar-
pah&ri and Manas£. The former is merely another name for the
well-known mountain god of the Mundas and Santils, while the
latter is the snake goddess, probably also of non-Aryaii origin,
whose cult has been described in the article on the BAgdis. To
these are offered goats, fowls, rice, and ghi, the offerings being
afterwards eaten by the worshippers themselves.

The Mahilis of Northern Manbhum bury their dead faoe down-
wards ; but this praotice is not universal, for
Ihsp08al e the P&tar Mahilis and the Mahilis of the

Santil Parganas burn their dead and bury the ashes near at hand.
On the eleventh day after death offerings of milk, ghi, and rice
are made at the plaoe of burial. Similar offerings are presented in
the months of K&rtik and Chait for the propitiation of departed
ancestors in general. The anniversary of the death of an individual
ancestor is not observed.

Mahilis rank socially with Bauris and Dosadhs. They eat beef,
pork, and fowls, and are very partial to strong
drink. Field-rats, which are reckoned a special
delicacy by the Oraons, they will not touch.
They will eat cooked food with the Kurmi, the Bhumij, and the
Deswali Santals. They believe their original occupation to be
basket-making and bamboo work generally. Many of them are
now engaged in agriculture as non-oocupancy raiyats and landless
day-labourers.

Social status and occu-
pation.

Digitized by

Google

MAHILI.

HAHTO.

The following statement shows the number and .distribution of
Mahilis in 1872 and 1881 : —

District.

1872.

1881.

District.

1872.

1881.

Bardwan

Maid all

1.865

218

Bank nr*

S&nt&l P&rg&nis .

9,521

1,252

Birbhum ... , M

Cuttack

Midnapor

8.497

866

Bnlaaore

Nadiya

Ktrama

Tributary State* .

804

Hasan bagh ...
Lobardagi ...

1,979

2,286

Dinnjpur

802

8,999

7,610

Baj«hahy»

flO

196

Singbhum ...
Manbhura ...

1,801

7,895

1,190

4,77*

Monjrbyr

875

Tributary 8tataa .

111

Bhagalpur

648

Mahili-Mund&, a sub-caste of
Mahilis in Western Bengal.

Mahintd, a gdin of the Bdtsya
gotra of Kirhi Brahmans in
Bengal.

Mahisirupjdn, a mul or section
of the Naomulia or Majraut sub-
oaste of Go&l&s in Behar.

M&hkur, M&kur, a sub-caste of
Go&L&s in Chota Nagpur.

Mahlaingtsa, a sept of
Maghs in the Hill Tracts of
Chittagong.

Mahli, a sept of Birhors in
Ghota Nagpur.

Mahmud&b&z, a sub-caste of
N&pits in Eastern Bengal.

M4hmudpuri&, a sub-caste of
K&m&rs in Western Bengal.

Mahrd, a mul or section of the
Biahut sub-caste of Kalwars in
Behar.

M&hrdy a title of Chamirs
and men employed to herd
eattle.

Mahr4gh&si, a sub-caste of
Gh&sis in Ghota Nagpur who
serve as bearers.

Mahraji&t a section of Bhits.

Mahr&na, a pangat or section
of Bansphor Dorns, and of
Dosadhs in Behar.

Mahrano, a title of Hindu
Jol&h&s in Behar.

Mahrasid, a pur or seotion of
S&kadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

M ah rat, a mul or seotion of
the Ayodhid sub-caste of Haj-
jdms in Behar.

Mahraul, a mul or section of
the Goria sub -caste of GoAlis in
Behar.

Mahraur, a sept of the Chand-
rabansi R&jputs in Behar. They
cannot intermarry with persons
of the Bes&in and Chaubhdn septs,
being supposed to have had their
oommon origin in the same saint.

Maht&, a section of Go&lfa in
the North-Western Provinces
and Behar.

Mahtha, a section of the
Amashta sub-caste of Kiyasths
in Behar.

M&hto, (i) a village headman ;
(ii) a title applied m Behar to
Kurmis who by age or by per-
sonal influence have attained a
leading position in their villages.
In some parts of the country the

Digitized by LjOOQle

MAHTO.

* MAINPUM.

title is used as almost synony-
mous with Kurmi ; and a foirmi,
when asked to what caste he
belongs, will reply “ Mdhto;” (iii)
a title of the following castes : —
Dhdnuks, Dosddhs, Goria Godlds,
Koiris, Sunris ; the Bhojpurid
and Ayodhid sub-castes of
Nunids in Behar ; also Thdrus ;
the Bediyas, Mahilis, Ndgeswars,
and Kharwars in Chota Nagpur ;
Cheros and the Mai we Rdjputs in
Chota Nagpur; Tdntis, Kewats,
Binds and Dhobis in Behar.

Mahtoar, a totemistic sept of
Chiks in Chota Nagpur.

Mahtwar, a section of Godlds
in Behar.

Mahud, a tree, a totemistic sept
of Pins, Dorns, Bedyas, and
Chamdrs in Chota Nagpur.

Mahu&r, a sept of Bdjputs in
Behar.

Mahu&ri, a section of Bdbhans
and of the Biydhut and Khari-
ddhd Kalwdrs in Behar.

Mahukal, a bird, a totemistic
sept of Mundas, Bediyas, and
Kharwars ; a section of Mahilis in
Chota Nagpur.

Mahuli, a section of the Sdt-
mulid Maghay & sub-caste of Kdn-
dus in Benar.

Mahur or Mahuliya, a sub-
caste of Lohdrs in Behar.

Mdhuri, a sub-caste of Baniyds in Behar, who occupy nearly as
high a rank as the Agarwdls in social estimation. Like the Sikhs,
the Mdhuris strictly prohibit the use of tobaoco, and a man detected
smoking would be expelled from the community. Another peculiar
usage is that marriages are always celebrated at the bridegroom's
house, and not at the bride's. Trade and money-lending are the
proper oooupations of the Mdhuri. Some of them have acquired
substantial tenures and set up as landholders and zamindars.

M ah uri&, a section of Ldheris
in Behar.

Mah w&i a section of the Tirbu-
tia sub-oaste of Dorns in Behar.

Maiduchhd, a thar or sept of
Khambus in Darjiling.

Maikam, a thar or sept of
Khambus in Darjiling.

Mai ketdri begund bdgh,
“harrow, sugarcane, egg-plant,
garden,” a formula or shibboleth
distinguishing a section of the
Maghaya sub- caste of Koiris in
Behar.

Maikhola, a sub-tribe of
Limbus in Darjiling.

Mdil, a mul or section of the
Chhamulid Madhesid sub-caste of
Halwdis in Behar.

Mdilidhurlak, a mul or
seotion of the Naomulid or
Majraut sub-caste of Godlds in
Behar.

Mailwdr, a section of Cheros,
Kharids, Kharwars, and Lohdrs
in Chota Nagpur.

Mdilwar, a mul or section of
the Naomulid or Majraut sub-
caste of Godlds in Behar.

Maind, a bird, a totemistic sept
of Godlds, Parhaiy as, Mundas, and
Bediyas in Chota Nagpur.

Mainkiswar, a section of
the Kamdr sub-caste of Dosddhs
in Behar.

Ma inpur i, a class of Baniyds
in Behar.

Digitized by ^.oosle

MAIB.

MAL.

M£ir, a sub-caste of Sondrs in
Behar who do not permit the
remarriage of their widows.

Mairi&i a section of Bdbhans
in Behar.

Mais&sari, a sub-oaste of Kur-
mis in Orissa.

M&it&l, a title of Kdnsdris or
braziers in Western Bengal.

Maitbukru, a plaoe where he
buries his bones, being his an-
cestral birthplace, a section of
Mahilis in Chota Nagpur.

Maithil or TirhutiA, a terri-
torial division of the Pancha
Gaura Brahmans in Behar, de-
riving its name from Mithild or
Tirhut.

M&iti, Matij a title of Utkal
Brahmans and of Kaibarttas in
Orissa and Bengal.

Maitra, a gain of the Kdsyapa
gotra of Bdrendra Brahmans in
Bengal.

Majar or M injur, peacock, a
totemistic sept of Mundas and
Pins in Chota Nagpur.

M&jh&li&r, a mul or section of
the Sdtmulid or Kishnaut sub-
caste of Goa Ids in Behar.

Majhal-Turiyd, a sub-caste of
Rajwdrs in Lohardagd.

MAjhasthdn, a sub-caste of
Kumhdrs in Pabna.

Mdjhaurd, a section of the
Biyahut and Kharidahd Kalwdrs
in Behar.

Majhiaur, a sept of the Rautdr
sub tribe of Thdrus in Behar.

Majhiya, a seotion of Rajwdrs
in Western BengaL

Majhrot, a title of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar.

Majhwat, a sub-caste of Goalas
in Chota Nagpur.

MAji, a title of Kandhs in
Orissa.

Majilpur, a samdj or local group
of the Ddkshindtya Baidik Brah-
mans in the 24-Pargands.

Majlishi, a sub-caste of Sunris
in Eastern BengaL

Majlisi (Maudgalya), a section
of Kaibarttas in Murshedabad.

Majraut or Naomulid, a sub-
caste of Goalds in Behar.

Majumd&r, an honorary title
of Brahmaus, Kayasths, Baruis,
Jugis, and Sunris in Bengal ; a
hypergamous group of Kaibart-
tas in Bakarganj.

Majurrishi, a section of
Mayards in Bengal'

Makad&i a seotion of Godlds
in the North-Western Provinces
and Behar.

Makhaiw&r, a pur orsection of
Sdkadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Mdkhpaw&r, a pur or section
of Sdkadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Maki, Muki , a synonym for
Ghdsi.

Mdkunda, a sub-group of the
Hdliyd or Hele Kaibarttas in
Central Bengal.

Makundpuri, a section of
Sondrs in Behar.

a Dravidian cultivating caste of Western and Central
„. .... r . . Bengal, many of whom are employed as
ions o ongm. chaukiddrs or village watohmen and have gained
an evil reputation for their thieving propensities. Beyond the vague
statements current among the Male of Eastern Bengal, that they
were wrestlers (Malta, Mdla) at the court of the Dacca Nawdbs and
gained their name from this profession, the caste appear to have no

Digitized by {jOOQie

HiL.

traditions, and their origin has formed the subjeot of muoh discussion,
the general drift of whxoh is stated by Mr. Beverley 1 as follows : —
44 In his late work on the Ancient Geography of India, General
Cunningham quotes a passage from Pliny, in which the Malli are
mentioned as this • — 4 Genies : Calingm proximi mart, et supra Mandei
MalU , quorum mons Mallus finisqueejus tractus est Ganges In another
passage we have, { Ab its ( Palibothris ) in interiors situ Monedes et Suari ,
quorum mons Mallus ’; and putting the two passages together, General
Cunningham 4 thinks it highly probable that both names may be
intended for the oelebrated Mount Mandar, to the south of Bhagalpur,
which is fabled to have been used by the gods and demons at the
churning of the ooean.’ The Mandei General Cunningham iden-
tifies ‘ with the inhabitants of the Mahanadi river, which is the Manada
of Ptolemy/ 4 The Malli or Malei would therefore be the same people
as Ptolemy’s Mandates, who occupied the right bank of the Ganges
to the south of Palibothra,’ the Mandalm or Mandali having been
already identified with the Monedes and the modern Munda Kols.
‘Or/ adds General Cunningham , 4 they may be the people of the
Rajmahal hills who are called Maler, which would appear to be
derived from the Canarese Male and the Tamil Malei, a 4 hill.’ It
would therefore be equivalent to the Hindu pahdri or pdrbatiya,
a 4 hillman.” Putting this last suggestion aside for the present, it
seems to me that there is some little confusion in the attempt to
identify both the Monedes and the Malli with the Mundas. If the
Mandei and the Malli are distinct nations — and it will be observed
that both are mentioned in the same passage — the former rather
than the latter would seem to correspond with the Monedes or Mundas.
The Malli would then correspond rather to the Suari, quorum mons
Mallus — the hills bounded by the Ganges at Rajmahal. They may
therefore be the same as the Mats. In other words, the Mals — the
words Maler and Malhar seem to be merely a plural form— may
possibly be a branoh of the great Sauriyan family to which the
Kajmahal Pah&riis, the Oraons, and the Sabars all belong, and whioh
Colonel J)alton would desoribe as Dra vidian. Fifteen hundred or
two thousand years ago this people may have occupied the whole
of Western Bengal. Pressed by other tribes, they have long sinoe
been driven into ooraers, but not without, as it were, leaving traoes
of their individuality behind. In Mal-bhumi (Manbhum) instead
of 4 the Country of the Wrestlers, ’ as Dr. Hunter puts it, we seem
to have the land of 4 Mons Mallus ’ and the Mals. The Maldah district
may also possibly owe its name to their having been settled there.
Ajs to the name, indeed it is quite possible that it means nothing
more than highlanders ; the word Mallus being simply the Indian
vernacular for the Latin mons . If a native were asked the name of
a hill in the present day, he would reply, as Pliny’s informant probably
replied years ago, that it was a 4 hill and if asked the name of the
people who lived there, he would probably say they were 4 hillmen.’

44 These Mals appear to have been driven eastwards and to have
spread over the whole of Bengal, where they have become merged

1 Report qf the Census qf Bengal , 1872, by H. Beverley, p. 184 .

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M AL.

in the mass of low-caste Hindus. This will aooount to some extent
for what Colonel Dalton calls the Dravidian element in the com-
position of the Bengali race. Under the Hindu system the Mals,
like other aboriginal tribes who came within the pale of Hinduising
influences, appear to have formed one of the forty-five tribes of
Chandals, the lowest or sweeper olass among Hindus. Chandals are
found in every district of Bengal, their aggregate number in the
present day being over a million and a half. In Mymensingh,
where we find 20,000 Mals, we have 123,000 Chandals. In the
south-eastern districts they seem to have lost their name in the
generic term of Chandals, but in the eastern districts they still retain
it. In Birbhum and Bankura, in each of which districts there are
about 9,000 Mals, there are not as many hundred Chandals. In
Murshedabad there are 29,000 Mals against 22,000 who described
themselves as Chandals. Most offioers say the Mals are identically
the same as the Chandals. Some say they are wrestlers, others
attribute' to them the same occupation as that of the Madaris or
Sampheriyas, viz., that of snake-charmers. Others, again, say they
are Musalmans, and identify them with Bediyas or Babajiyas ; but
in this explanation there seems to be some confusion, the two last
tribes not being generally considered identical. The Babajiyas,
though an itinerant tribe like the Bediyas, are employed, like the
stationary Pasaris, in soiling drugs. The returns, however, show
that some of the Mals are Musalmans. 9 ’

The most primitive specimens of the caste are met with in
r A , . . Bankura, where they have distinctly totemistio

sections, and are divided mto the following
sub-oastes:— DhaiiA Gobrd or Gur&, Khera, Rajbansi, and
S&n&g4nth&. In Midnapur and Manbhum we find Dhunak&td,
R&jbansi, S&puryA or Bedya MAI, and TungA; in Birbhum
Khaturfa, Mallik, and RAjbansi ; in the SantAl ParganAs Deswar,
MagahiyA, Rajbansi or RAiA MAI, RArhi MAI, and SindurA;
while in Murshedabad the sub- castes are the same as in Bankuar,
except that DhaliA is not known. The origin of these groups is
extremely obscure, and I doubt whether any amount of inquiry
would throw much light on the subjeot. RAjbansi, for example,
is the name adopted by a very large proportion of the Koohh
tribe; but there is no reason to suppose that the MAls are Koohh,
and they might easily have aoquired the name RAjbansi in the
same manner as the Kochh have done by identifying themselves
with the lineage of a local RAjA, who may or may not have
belonged to the same race. The simplest solution of the difficulty
appears to be to assume that Mai is nothing more than a
variant of MalA, ‘man, 9 the name by which the MalA PahAriAs

describe themselves. It is possible, again, that the RAjbansi Mils
may be the same as RAja MAls whom Buchanan noticed among
the MAI PahAriAs at the beginning of the century. The monkey-
catching Cobras bear the same name as one of the sub-castes of
BAgdis ; and Khera is not far removed from KhairA, whom some
regard as a branch of the Dorns. The SAnAgAnthA take their name
from making the uprights through whioh weavers pass their

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MIL.

thread. The Dhun&k&t& Mils collect resin (dhuna) by tapping
M trees ; the T ungi sub-caste are cultivators ; while the Sapurid or
Bedya Mils live by charming snakes, catching monkeys, hunting or
conjuring, and roam about the country carrying with them small
tents of coarse gunny-cloth. Although they catch snakes, Sipurii
Mils hold the animal in the highest reverence, and will not kul it,
or even pronounce its name, for wbioh they use the synonym latd>
4 a creeper/

The names of the last-mentioned group raise the probably
. insoluble question of the connexion of the
p wi e y • Mils with the Bediyis. Dr. Wise treats both
Mil and Samperii or Sipurii as subdivisions of the Bediyi tribe ;
but it is equally possible that the Mil may be the parent group,
and that the Bediyis may have separated from it by reason of
their adhering to a wandering mode of life when the rest of the
tribe had taken to comparatively settled pursuits. There certainly
seem to be reasons for suspecting some tolerably close affinity
between the two groups. The Mils of Daoca, for instance, are
called Ponkwah, from their dexterity in extracting worms from
the teeth, a characteristic accomplishment of the Bediyis. They
repudiate the suggestion of kinship with the latter tribe, but it is
said that many can recollect the time when relationship was readily
admitted. At present, however, in spite of some survival of roviog
habits, peculiar physiognomy, and distinctive figures, Mils are with
difficulty recognized. Many of them are small bankers ( mahdjam ),
never dealing in pedlar’s wares, but advancing small sums, rarely
exceeding eight rupees, on good security. The rate of interest
charged is usually about fifty per cent, per annum ; but this demand,
however exorbitant, is less than that exacted by many money-lenders
in the towns. The Dacca Mils never keep snakes, and know
nothing about the treatment of their bites. The women, however,
pretend to a secret knowledge of simples and of wild plants. They
are also employed for cupping, for relieving obscure abdominal pains
by friction, and for treating uterine diseases, but never for tattooing.
The Mils of Eastern Bengal do not intermarry with Bediyas, and
even within the limits of their own group a sharp distinction used
to be observed between settled Mals and gipsy M&ls ; so that if one
of the former sought to marry a girl of the latter class, he was
required to leave his home, give up bis cultivation, and adopt a
wandering life. This custom has gradually given way to a keener
sense of tne advantages of settled life, but its general disuse is said
to be still resented by the elders of the caste.

Plausible as the conjecture may be whioh would trace some
bond of kinship between the Bediyas and the M&ls, the evidence
bearing on the point is not preoise enough to enable us to identify
the S&purid Mals of Midnapur with the 6&mperiya Bediyds of
Eastern Bengal. SnaK e-charming is an occupation likely enough
to be adopted by auy caste of gipsy-like propensities, and there is
no reason why both M&ls and Bediyds should not have taken to it
independently. Further particulars will be found in the article
Bediya.

s* -

Digitized by ^.oosle

MAL.

The Mils of Western and Central Bengal seem on the whole
to be the most typical representatives of the
Qgamy * original Mil tribe. Among them the primitive
rule of exogamy is in full foroe, and a man may not marry a woman
who belongs to the same totem group as himself. Prohibited degrees
are reckoned by the standard formula calculated in the descending
line to five generations on the father’s and three on the mother’s
side. Outsiders belonging to higher castes may be admitted into the
Mil community by giving a feast to the Mils of the neighbour-
hood and drinking water in which the headman of the village {mdnjhi)
has dipped his toes. No instanoe of any one undergoing this disagree-
able ordeal has been quoted to me, and such oases must be very rare.

Girls may be married either as infants or after they have
. attained puberty, the tendenoy being towards

amaffe * the adoption of the former custom. The cere-

mony takes place just before daybreak in a sort of arbour made
of mahua and stdhd branches in the oourtyard of the bride’s house.
After the bride has been carried seven times round the bridegroom
the couple are made to sit Bide by side facing the east, and a
vessel of water which has been blessed by a Brahman is poured over
their heads after the manner of the Mundas and Oraons . 1 Garlands
of flowers are then exchanged, the clothes of the pair are knotted
together, and if adult they retire into a separate room in order to
consummate their union. On their reappearance they are greeted by
the company as husband and wife. Polygamy is permitted, but
most Mils are too poor to maintain more than one wife. A widow
may marry again , 8 but no special ritual is in use, except among
the BAji Mils of Birbhum, who exchange necklaces of beads or
seeds of the tulsi ( Ocynum sanctum ) ; and suoh marriages, which
are called sanga , are effected by paying a small fee to the headman
( khdmtd or mdnjhi) and to the father of the widow. Divoroe may
be effected, with the sanction of the panchiyat, on the ground of
adultery by the wife, and divorced women may marry again in
the same manner as widows.

Mils profess to have completely adopted Hinduism, and no
vestiges of any more primitive religion oan
eiigion. now be traced among them. They seem to

belong to whatever Hindu sect is popular in the locality where
they are settled; and in different districts they describe them-
selves as Yaishnavas, Saivas, or Siktas, as the case may be. The
snake goddess Manasi is believed to be their special patroness,
and is worshipped by them in much the same fashion as by the
Bigdis. Sacrifices of rice, sweetmeats, and dried rice are also offered
by the heads of families to the tutelary goddess of each village,
who bears the name of the village itself with the termination stni

1 According to some accounts dal mi, the goddess of water, must first be
worshipped with gifts of flowers at a neighbouring tank, and water drawn
from this tank must be used in the marriage in addition to water blessed
by a Brahman.

9 This is the general rule, but the Rijbansi Mils of Midnapur have
recently abandoned widow-marriage.

Digitized by ^.oosle

MIL.

added ; so that the goddess of the village Pithari would be called
PitbarisinL In most districts they have not yet attained to the
dignity of employing Brahmans, but elders of the caste or headmen
of villages serve them as priests ( khdmid ). In the Santil Parganis,
however, the Brahmans of the Let sub-caste of Bigdis officiate also
for the Riji Mils. The dead are burned, usually at the side of
_ , . a stream, into whioh the ashes are thrown. A
sposai meagre imitation of the orthodox sraddh

oeremony is performed on the eleventh day after death in ordinary cases,
and on the third day for those who have died a violent death. On
the night of the Kili Puji in Kirtik (Ootober-November) dried jute
stems are lighted in honour of departed ancestors, and some even say
that this is done to show their spirits the road to heaven. Libations
of water are offered on the last day of Chait. Female children are
buried mouth downwards, and the bodies of very poor persons are
often buried with the head to the north in the bed oi a river.

Agriculture is supposed to be the original profession of the caste,
and most Mils, except those of distinctly gipsy
^Ooaupfttion and social habits, are now engaged in cultivation as occu-
pancy or non-oocupancy raiyats and landless
day-labourers. None appear to have risen to the higher rank
of zamindar or tenure-holder, except in Bankura, where one sarddr
ghatwdl, one sadial , 56 tabidars , and 35 chakardn chaukidars are
Mils. In Manbhum, on the other hand, whioh some believe to be the
original home of the caste, no Mils are found in possession of these
ancient tenures, though some are employed as ordinary village
chaukidars The women of the caste and some of the men often
make a livelihood by fishing — a fact which accounts for their bearing
the title of Machhui. Their sooial status is very low, and is clearly
defined by the fact that Bigdis and Koras will not take water from
their hands, while they will take water and sweetmeats not only
from those castes, but also from Bauris. Mils pride themselves on
abstaining from beef and pork, but eat fowls, all kinds of fish,
field-rats, and the flesh of the gosamp (. Lacerta godica). The Riji
Mils, however, do not touoh fowls.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of
Mils in 1872 and 1881 : —

District.

1872.

1881.

District.

1878.

1881.

Bardwan

Bankura

Birbhum

Midnapur

Huxhli

Howrah ...

24.ParganAa

Nadiya

Khulna

Jessore

Murshedabad

Dinajpur

Bajshahye

Kangpur

f3SSL ::: ::: :::

Darjiling

8,078

8,436

9,316

6,726

} 1,068
965
4,407

6,677

29,281

1,446

1,061

886

818

1,682

7S4
12,348
21,630
4,042
( 607

l 16

829

4,696

2,398

8,368

1,026

207

318

743

1,310

Jalpigorl

Dacca

Pandpur

Bakarg&nj

Maim ansi oh

Tipperah

Chittagong

Noakhah

Shahabad

B hagai pur

Maldah

Sant&l Pargan&t ...
Tributary States, Orissa

LohardagA

Singbhum

Mnnbhum ... ...

Tributary States ...

...

4,663

967

2,945

20,166

3,970

907

2,062

8,820

1,082

950

1,367

4,031

1,042

*7,835

2,272

877

14,782

4,755

7,016

6'i7

885

489

1,675

Digitized by {jOOQie

MAL.

MALti.

M&l, a sub-caste of Bhuiyas
in Singbhum ; a title of Kaibart-
tas ; a section of the Maghayd
sub-caste of Koiris and a section
of Turis ; a sub-sept of the Saren
sept of Santals.

m\ or M&r, a sub-caste of
Mauliks in Ghota Nagpur.

M4I&, a title of Kap&lis and
Kawdlis in Eastern Bengal.

Mdlabhumid, a 6ub-caste of
Muchis in Bengal.

M&l&dh&rkh&ni, a mel or
hypergamous sub-group of Bdrhi
Brahmans in Bengal.

Malar , a synonym for Kathak
in Singbhum.

Malar f a sept of Mundas and
Gh&sis in Ghota Nagpur.

Malauri&r, a pur or section of
Sdkadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Mdldhid, a section of the Sdt-
mulid Maghayfi, sub-caste of
Kindus in Behar.

Mai, Samartd Maid, Savar Pahdrid, Saurid , Sdmil Pahdrid ,
Asa l Pahdrid , Sangi, a Dravidian tribe of the
rigm ' Rajmahal hills, closely akin to the Oraons, and

probably an isolated branch of the large and widely diffused Savar
tribe. The actual name of the tribe appears to be M&l, which is
combined with the pronouns en , em , and d in order to form the
present of the verb substantive. Thus M&len is the first person
singular, I am a Mdl; MA1£, the tliird person singular; Malem, the
first person plural ; and MAler (used in the spelling Malair by Lieu-
tenant Shaw as the name of the tribe), the third person plural. The
selection of Maid as the tribal name for the purpose of this work
is therefore both arbitrary and incorrect, and can only be justified by
the necessity of having some distinctive designation to mark off these
Mdls from the M&l Pah&ri&s of the southern hills and from the
Mai caste of Bengal. In respect of physical characteristics the M614
represent the extreme type of the Dravidian race as we find it in
Bengal. The nasal index measured on 100 men of the tribe yields
an average of 94 5, which closely approaches the proportions ascer-
tained for the Negro. The average stature is low, the complexion
dark, and the figure short and sturdy.

Owing to the rocky and forest-bound character of their country,
and their incessant internal struggles, the Malls
of the Rljmah&l hills maintained a virtual
independence during the period of Musalm&n
ascendancy in Bengal. It appears that, although they never com-
pletely recognized the imperial authority, they had a rude indigenous
system of government, which was worked in moderate accord with
the zaminddrs of the low country bordering on the hills. The hills
included in eaoh tappd or subordinate fisoal division were subject to
one or more divisional headmen, called sardars , to whom the village
headmen (mdajhis) were in their turn subordinate. The sardars ,
who were possibly more civilized than the rest of the tribe, reoeived
from the zamindars allotments of land in the plains on jaglr or
service tenures, in consideration of which they made themselves
responsible for the prevention and detection of orime among the
hill people. Besides this, the passes leading from the hills into

d 2

Early history of
tribe.

the

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MALI*.

tho plain country were guarded by outposts of Mites, whose duty
it was to stop any bodies of men from making raids upon the plains,
and to give warning of an impending inroad. For further security,
the zaminddrs themselves maintained at the foot of the hills a chain
of chaukis or police outposts, which were independent of the Mile

S iardians of the passes within the hills. Once every year, at the
asahari festival, the divisional headman (sarddr) of each iappd
came down to the plains with his subordinate manjhis, and there
partook of a feast and received a turban at the zaminddr's expense,
at the same time formally renewing his engagements to keep the
peaoe within his jurisdiction. For a long time this system kept
crime within bounds, and promoted good feeling between the Mites
and the people of the low country; but about the middle of last
century a snow of independence on the part of the hill people
was treacherously resented by the zaminddrs , who took the oppor-
tunity of the annual public feast to murder several of the village
headmen. On this the Mal£s within the hills gave up the guardian-
ship of the passes, and oommeneed a series of depredations, which
were held in some check up to 1770 by the line of zamindari polioe
posts without the hills. In that year, however, the famine which
desolated the neighbouring districts pressed with peculiar severity
upon the alluvial strip of oountry lying between the Rijmahil
hills and the Ganges ; the police outposts were abandoned, and
the plains thus lay at the mercy of the Mates, who, owing to their
aboriginal practioe of living upon jungle foods, had escaped the
extremity of distress. It was therefore in the years following the
famine of 1770 that the raids of the hillmen upon the low country
became most frequent and most systematic. Plunder no doubt was
their main object, and the desire to revenge the treacherous murder
of their headmen; but many of their inroads were in the fust
instance instigated by the landholders, who were in the habit of offering
the Mates a free passage through their own lands on condition that
they ravaged those of the neighbouring zamindars. At any rate, the
terror they occasioned was so widespread that the alluvial country
was deserted by its cultivators ; no boat dare moor after dusk on the
southern bank of the Ganges; and even the Government mail-
runners, who in those days passed along the skirts of the hills, by
way of R&jmahal and the Telii Garhi Pass, were frequently robbed
and murdered at the foot of the hills. Up to 1778 the British
Government, like the Muhammadans before them, made various
attempts to suppress the Mates by military foroe. In 1772 a
corps of light infantry, armed expressly for jungle fighting, was
raised and placed under command oE Captain Brooke. But the
Males never gave the troops a chanoe in the open country ; while
in the tangled undergrowth of the hills firearms had no decided
advantage over the strong bamboo bows and heavy poisoned arrows
of the hillmen. Besides this, the absence of roads, the difficulty
of keeping up supplies, and the fatally malarious climate of the
Rijmahil jungles, made the permanent subjection of the Mites
a hopeless undertaking for native troops. In 1778 Captain Brown,
then commanding the corps of light infantry, submitted to

Digitized by ^.oosle

mal6.

Government a scheme for the pacification of the hillmen, the essential
elements of whioh were the following : — First, the sarddrs or divi-
sional headmen of the Mdl£s were to be restored to their original
position as chiefs of the tribe, receiving formal sanads of appoint-
ment from Government, and in their turn entering into engagements,
renewable annually, to perform certain specified duties. Similar
engagements were to be taken from the mdnjhis or village head-
men, binding them to obey the sarddrs in all matters laid down in
the sanads. Second , those sarddrs whose tappds bordered upon the
public road were to receive a fixed pecuniary allowance, nominally
for the purpose of maintaining police to proteot the mail-runners,
but in fact as a bribe to deter them from committing robberies them-
selves. Third , all transactions with the hill people were to be
carried on through their sarddrs and manjhis, but intercourse with
the inhabitants of the plains was to be enoouraged by establishing
markets on the outskirts of the hills. Fourth , the old chauki bandi
or ohain of police outposts, which had been abandoned in 1770, was
to be completely re-established and maintained by Government
until the service lands attached to them had been brought under
cultivation. But the control of these outposts was to be taken from
the zaminddrs and made over to thanadars or polioe offioers appointed
by Government, who were again to be subordinate to sazawals or
divisional superintendents. This polioe force was further to be
strengthened by conferring grants of lands below the hills on
invalid sepoys, on the condition that they settled on their allotments
and gave assistance in the event of a MA1£ inroad. The total
annual expense of the scheme was estimated at £100. Early in
1778 Captain Brown’s scheme was approved by Government ; and
both the ohain of police posts below the hills and the system of
allowances to the sarddrs on the public road were partially estab-
lished before the end of the year. But in 1779 the hill country of
RAjmah&l was transferred from Captain Brown’s jurisdiction, and it
thus fell to Mr. Augustus Cleveland, who had been appointed
Collector of Bh&galpur, to carry out the foregoing scheme. In the
following year (1780) Mr. Cleveland reported that forty-seven hill
chiefs had of their own will submitted to Government authority.
With the view of retaining these men as loyal subjects he subse-
quently proposed that a corps of hill archers, four hundred strong,
should be enrolled from among the Miles and offioered by eight
sarddrs or divisional headmen, under the command of the Collector
of Bhigalpur. The officers were to be paid Rs. 5, and the common
soldiers Rs. 3, per mensem. Every village headman, he suggested,
should be called upon to furnish recruits to the corps, and should
receive for this service an allowance of Rs. 2 a month. The yearly
expense of this arrangement, including the cost of the purple jackets
and turbans which were to form the uniform of the corps, was
estimated by Mr. Cleveland at £3,2u0. Warren Hastings, who was
then Governor-General, at first objeoted to the enrolment of the
oorps of archers on the ground of this heavy expense, and sanctioned
a scheme whioh Mr. Cleveland had proposed m the meantime, for
granting pensions of Rs. 10 a month to all divisional headmen

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(sarddrs) and of Rs. 5 a month to their ndlbs or deputies ; mdnjhis or
village headmen were to receive no allowance at all. But towards
the end of 1780 the enrolment of a oorps of archers was sanctioned,
mainly in consequence of the Commander-in-Chief having expressed
his approval of the scheme when passing through BhAgalpur on his
way to the Upper Provinces. At the same time the fiscal divisions
of AmbAr and SultAnAbad were transferred to Mr. Cleveland’s
jurisdiction, it having been found that the chiefs of the southern

{ >ortion of the RAjmahAl hills would not give in their allegiance as
ong as they were exposed to continual inroads from the inhabitants
of those parganas. Shortly afterwards, at the special request of the
sarddrs and mdnjhis of BelpattA, that fiscal division was also placed
under Mr. Cleveland, pensions being granted to the chiefs and
recruits furnished for the hill archers.

Not long after the enrolment of the hill archers an outbreak
that occurred in the hills was quelled by them so effectively that a
proposal by Mr. Cleveland that the corps should be drilled and armed
like regular sepoys was readily sanctioned, and Lieutenant Shaw was
appointed adjutant; the name of the corps being at the same time
changed to “ The BhAgalpur Hill Rangers,” by which name they
were known until disbanded on the reorganization of the Native
army after the Mutiny in 1857.

From the first enrolment of the hill archers petty offences com-
mitted by the members of the corps were punished by a rude court-
martial of the officers. In 1782, however, one of the archers
murdered a MA1A woman, and in order to punish this, the first
serious crime that had occurred, Mr. Cleveland proposed the forma-
tion of a distinct tribunal, the j urisdiction of which should be limited
to members of the corps. This, which was at first styled court-
martial, and afterwards hill assembly, was to consist of three or
more officers of the corps, the power of appointing and dissolving
the court resting with Mr. Cleveland. Mr. Cleveland was also to
approve of all sentences passed by the court, except when capital
punishment was awarded. In that case an assembly of five or more
hill chiefs ( sarddrs ) was to be convened, and a final decision to be
passed in accordance with the opinion of the majority. Mr. Cleveland
rurther proposed that offences committed by the inhabitants of the
hills generally, with the exception of those who were enrolled in
the corps of archers, should be withdrawn from the jurisdiction of
the ordinary courts and placed under a tribunal of chiefs (sarddrs)
presided over by himself. The entire scheme, both as regards the
court-martial for the archers and the assembly of sardars for the
hillmen generally, was approved by Government in April 1782.
Shortly afterwards Mr. Cleveland reported that he had arranged
for assemblies to be held twice a year, and gave the following
account of the proceedings of the first trial : — “I have settled with
the chiefs that they are regularly to assemble here twice a year for
the purpose of trying all prisoners who may be brought before them ;
and as particular cases occur which may require immediate inquiry,
they have agreed to attend whenever I find it necessary to summon
them. One assembly has been already held, at which 1 principal

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55 M AL&.

chief (sarddr), 74 mdnjhis, and 120 common hill people were tried
for plundering the pargand of Kharakpur of near nine hundred head
of cattle. The trial lasted three days, and was conducted with as muoh
ceremony and formality as the nature and disposition of the people
would admit of. I have the pleasure to observe, however, that the chiefs
appeared to conduct themselves throughout the trial with the greatest
attention and impartiality, and the result of their proceedings, whioh
I have confirmed, is as follows: — One principal chief, Bidji of
Titorid, and one common hill man, Chandra of Pupat, to be hanged
immediately; and the sentence was accordingly carried into execup
tion this morning, in the presence of the corps of hill archers and
all the principal hill chiefs and mdnjhis. One mdnjhi, Jarud of
Tdtakpdrd, to Tbe hanged twenty days hence, unless the whole cattle
plundered are delivered up in that time, in which oase he is to be
pardoned. Seven mdnjhis to be confined for their lives, unless the
whole of the cattle plundered are delivered up in twenty days, in
which case they are to be pardoned. Sixty-five mdnjhis and 120
common hill people acquitted.”

The rules of Mr. Cleveland’s Hill Assembly were subsequently
incorporated in Regulation I of 1796, which " provided that the
Magistrate should commit all important cases to be tried before an
assembly of hill chiefs. He was to attend the trial as superintending
offioer, and confirm or modify the sentenoe, if not exceeding
fourteen years’ imprisonment. Higher sentences were referred to
the Nizimat Adalat, as the Supreme Criminal Court was then called.
This unusual procedure was followed till 1827, when the law was
repealed by Regulation I of that year ; the mountaineers were then
declared amenable to the ordinary courts, but some of the hill mdnjhis
were to sit with the Magistrate as assessors when he tried cases in
whioh the hill men were concerned ; and the mdnjhis were also autho-
rized to adjudicate summarily in disputes about land, succession, and
claims to money when the value of the claim did not exceed one
hundred rupees.” It appears that the Hill Assembly, when no longer
kept together by the personal influence of Mr. Cleveland, became
almost unmanageable. Considerable difficulty was experienced in
getting the chiefs to meet at all ; and when present they would not
attend to the proceedings of the court, while their sentences were
hasty and capricious in the extreme. It was found, too, that even
when the assemblies oouldbe induced to do their work, the power they
had been entrusted with was too uncontrolled, and that the total per-
sonal exemption of the Mal£s from the jurisdiction of the ordinary
courts was a measure of doubtful policy, the more so as it seems to
have been held that under Regulation 1 of 1796 the Magistrate had
no power to try and punish M&l&s for petty offences on his own
motion. Regulation I of 1827 has now been repealed by Act XXTX
of 1871.

In 1783, the year before his death, Mr. Cleveland proposed that
the M&1& should be given extensive grants of waste land at the
foot of the hills on the following terms : — (1) Every sarddr was to
have a rent-free jdgir or service tenure, in perpetuity, of from 100 to
300 bighds of land. (2) Any M414 of lower rank than a chief

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might be allowed any quantity of land rent-free for ten years, it
being liable to subsequent assessment at equitable rates. (3) In order
to secure that the foregoing provisions should really oome into oper-
ation, Mr. Cleveland suggested that all sardars and mdryhis holding
pensions from Government should forfeit their pensions unless they
settled in the plains within twelve months. It was hoped that by
thus forcing the hill men to settle in the plains they would beoome
civilized by intercourse with the lowlanders ; while as they learned
more productive methods of agriculture it would be possible to make
them contribute to the cost of administration. But the scheme was
never carried out, and the immigration of Sant&ls from the west has
now almost completely cut off the Males from close intercourse
with the plains. In any case, it may be doubted whether they would
have left their hill§ ; while from all that is known of the Oraons
and other Dravidian races, Mr. Cleveland’s expectation that the Mal6s
would take to manufactures appears to have been utterly unfounded.

The traditions of the M &te are meagre. In Lieutenant Shaw’s
well-known monograph on the tribe 1 publish-
twm e( j * n 1795^ a 8 tory is told of seven brothers

who were deputed by the rods to people the earth. A feast was
made, and it was arranged that each brother was to take of such food
as he liked and go to the land which he had chosen to dwell in.
One took one thing and one another, and their ohoioe determined the
caste of their descendants. From the brother who took goat’s flesh
sprang the Hindus ; another who took flesh of all kiuds, but refused
pork, became the father of the Mahomedans ; another chose pork,
and from him are the Kiratis; another is the ancestor of the
‘Kawdir’ (K&dar), and so on. Onlv the eldest brother, who was
sick, got all sorts of food in an old dish. He was left in the hills as
an outoast, and from him the Mate are descended. This myth is
clearly only an echo of the similar story told by the Mundas and
Hos. Both versions agree in their general tenor and in some of their
details ; both must have arisen after the tribes had been for some time
in contact with Hindus, and both, it may be added, find it necessary
to provide a place for the English in their acoount of the making of
mankind.

All my correspondents agree in assuring me that the Mal4s
y • . . . have no endogamous or exogamous subdivi-

sion s, and that their marriages are regulated
solely by the standard formula for reckoning prohibited degrees
whioh is explained in the introduction. If this is oorreot, a point
upon whioh I am not yet fully oonvinoed, the fact is remarkable.
The M&tes have been less exposed to Hindu influences than their
kinsmen, the Oraons, yet the latter retain a long list of exogamous
totems, while the former have no exogamous groups at all, and in
this respect are more modern than most Hindu castes. The question
seems to me to call for further inquiry. One would wish to know
whether the M&14 ever observed the characteristic Dravidian system
of exogamy ; and if so, how it oame to fall into disuse.

1 Asiatic Researches, vol. IY.

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Free courtship is allowed, and girls are married, when of full
M age, to men of their own choioe. Sexual inter-

oourse before marriage is not reoognized in
theory, but if an unmarried girl becomes pregnant a sacrifice is
offered to atone for the indiscretion, and arrangements are made to
get her married without delay.

Marriage brokers ( sithu ) Eire employed to conduct the prelim-
inary negotiations, and to settle the difficult question of the bride-
price. When this has been satisfactorily arranged, an auspicious
day is fixed, when the bridegroom goes with his friends to the bride’s
house, taking with him a goat to furnish forth the wedding feast,
and the bride-price, a portion of which is sometimes paid before-
hand through the sithu . The parties are made to sit opposite each
other, the bridegroom faoing east and the bride west, while her girl
friends oomb and oil her hair. Then the father takes the bride by
the hand and gives her to the bridegroom, pointing out that she is
not halt, maimed or blind, and enjoining him to treat her kindly.
This done, the sithu takes the bridegroom’s right hand, dips the
little finger in sindur , and makes five dots with it on the girl’s fore-
head, afterwards using her finger to perform the same office for the
bridegroom. Guns are fired to mark the completion of this essential
rite, and the married couple then eat together out of the same dish
in symbol of their union. The proceedings are concluded by
a feast.

Divorce is permitted with the sanotion of the leading men of
the village. If the husband demands a divoroe
70m on the ground that his wife is barren, that

she has committed adultery, or that she is inourably lazy, he is
entitled to olaim a refund of the bride-price whioh he paid for her
in the first instance. He forfeits this right if the reasons which
he gives are deemed’ to he frivolous and insufficient. If the wife
claims a divorce on whatever grounds, her family must refund the
bride-pricf. The ritual observed consists in tearing a sal leaf or
breaking a small branch or a piece of string in token of separation,
and pouring a vessel of water over the woman’s head. Divorced

women may marry again.

The religion of the MAl^s is animism of the type oommon among
Religion. Dravidian tribes. At the head of their system

y stands the Sun called Dharmer Gosain, and

represented by a roughly-hewn post set up in front of each house.
He is worshipped with offerings of fowls, goats, sindur, and oil at the
commencement of the harvest season, and at other times when

any misfortune befalls the family. When people are gathered
together for this purpose, the village headman, who aots as priest,
goes round the congregation with an egg in his hand, and recites the
names of certain spirits. He then throws away the egg, apparently
as a propitiatory offering, and enjoins the spirits to hold aloof and
abstain from troubling the sacrifice. Among the minor gods
mentioned by Lieutenant Shaw, Raksi now appears as the tutelar
deity of strong drink, who is worshipped by the headman of the
village before beginning to distil liquor from the fresh mahua crop.

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Aooording to Lieutenant Shaw, R&ksi is sought out when a man-
eating tiger infests a village or a bad epidemic breaks out, and is
worshipped in the form of a black stone set up under a tree and
hedged round with Euphorbia plants. Chal or Ghalnad is a god
presiding over a group of ten villages, and represented by a black
stone set up under a mukmum tree. Goats and pigs are the
animals usually offered to him, and the sacrifice of a cow, said by
Lieutenant Shaw to be performed every three years, seems to have
fallen into disuse. Pau-Gosain, the god of highways, lives under
a bely karate, or mukmum tree. He is invoked by persons going on
a journey. When Lieutenant Shaw wrote the offering was a cock. Now
it is a white goat, and the sacrifice is said to be a very expensive one,
by reason of the large amount of rice-beer — ten or twelve maunds —
that must be offered to the god and drunk by his assembled votaries.
The tutelary deity of the village, spoken of by Lieutenant Shaw under
the name of Dwara Gosain, is now called Bara-Dw&ri, beoause he is
supposed to live in a temple with twelve doors. The whole village
worship him in the month of Magh. Colonel Dalton suggests that
this god may perhaps be the same as the Oraon D&rd. Kid Gosain,
4 the Geres of the mountaineers/ and Autga, the god of hunting, appear
not to be known at the present day. Gumo Gosain, or the god of
the pillar, is represented in every household by the wooden post
(gumo) which supports the main rafters of the roof. On this the
blood of a slain goat is sprinkled to propitiate the spirits of ancestors.
The fact that this god is common to the Mal£s and M&l Paharids (see
page 70 below), and is worshipped by both in the same way, seems to
tell strongly in favour of the common origin of the two tribes. As
in Lieutenant Shaw’s time, Chamda Gosain still ranks high among
the tribe, and demands offerings on a larger scale than any other god.
A sacrifice consisting of twelve pigs and twelve goats, with rice,
oil and sindur in proportion, must put a severe strain on the resources
of a Mdld villager* In order to commemorate the event, three
bamboos decorated with streamers of bark painted black and red
at the ends, the natural colour being left in the centre, are set
up to represent Chamda Gosain in front of the house of the
person who organizes the sacrifice. One bamboo has ninety stream-
ers, another sixty, and the third twenty, and the poles are also
decorated with peacock’s feathers. The night is spent in dancing,
and in the morning sacrifices are offered in the house and in the
fields for a blessing on the family and on the crops. The bamboos
are then taken inside and suspended from the roof of the house to
show that the owner has performed the full sacrifice.

The question whether the Mdl4s have any functionaries who
can properly be called priests is in some respects an obsoure one.
According to Buchanan, they formerly had priests called Naiyas or
Laiyas, a designation common enough in Western Bengal, but
these, it is said, have now disappeared, and their functions have
devolved upon the Demanos, who were originally only diviners
selected for their supposed intimacy with the spirits, their capacity
for going into trances, and so forth, these powers being in some
mysterious way bound up with their long hair, which may on no

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aooonnt be out. More reoent observers, however, assure me that
the Dem&no merely directs religious and ceremonial observances,
but does not himself officiate as priest. The duties of priest are
discharged by the village headman or the chief member of the
household, or by any influential person ohosen for the occasion, and
the Dem&no is merely a spiritual director endowed with certain
supernatural powers, such as that of discerning the causes of all
diseases, so that when a man falls ill he can say whioh of the gods
has afflicted him and what sort of sacrifice should be offered to
bring about his reoovery. On the occasions when Ohamda Gosain
and Gumu Gosain are worshipped, the Demano is deoorated with
a neoklaoe of oowrie shells. No Demano may eat turmerio. Besides
the Dem4no there is another rlass of divines called Cherin, whose
duty is to select persons to officiate as priests. This he does by
balancing a bow on his two hands and watching its oscillations,
while he oalls out one by one the names of the persons present, the
idea being that the god thus signifies from whose hands he wishes
to receive the offering. The flesh of the animals offered in sacrifice
is eaten by the male worshippers : women may not partake of it.

As a rule the M&14 bury their dead, the corpse being laid on

. ... . . a layer of bhelak leaves with the head pointing

Disposal of the dead. tfae north> The bodies of those who

died of snake-bite or have come to a violent end are exposed in the
jungle. According to Colonel Dalton, the bodies of Dem&nos are
dealt with in this fashion, on the ground that if they are buried
in the village, their ghosts walk and cause annoyance to the living.
On the fifth day after death a feast is given, to whioh all members
of the family are invited. Six months or a year later a special cere-
mony is held for the purpose of appeasing the spirit of the dead
man. The chief part is played by the Dem&no, who represents the
deceased, and is dressed so as to personate him as olosely as possible.
In this character he demands clothes, ornaments, food and whatever
the dead man was fond of in this life, the belief being that if
they are given to the Dem&no, the spirit will in some unexplained
fashion have the use of them in the world of the dead. When
the Dem&no has got all that he asked for, he goes into a fit and
remains insensible for some minutes, during which time he is sup-
posed to be in communication with the spirit of the deceased. On
his revival the company partake of a feast.

The property left by the dead man cannot be divided until this
second feast has taken place. According to Colonel Dalton, the
eldest son takes half, and the remainder is equally divided among
the agnates. Some say, however, that division among the sons takes
place on a sort of diminishing scale according to order of birth, the
eldest getting the largest share, the second less, and so on.

The M&d£ villages are usually built on the summits of the range
of hills occupied by the tribe. Their houses are
M e o ymg. constructed of wattled bamboo, the interstices
of which are filled with grass, no mud being used. They cultivate
by burning the underwood and sowing seed m the ashes, a system
usually known as jhum or parao , but by them oalled kale mandote ,

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MALI.

or 1 jungle-burning. * Although addicted to this destructive method
of agriculture, the M416 are great lovers of trees, which they plant
freely on their village sites. In matters of diet they acknowledge
none of the restrictions recognized by Hindus. They eat beef,
pork, domestic fowls, all kinds of fish, and the leavings of people of
other castes, and indulge freely in strong drink.

Male Kumchh&, a thar or sept
of Khambus in Darjiling.

Malh&, a title of Kaibarttas
in Orissa.

Malh&n, a section of the
Baranwar sub-caste of Baniyas
in Behar.

M&lh&tid, a mul or section of
Kesarwani Baniyas in Behar.

Malakbr, a caste employed in making garlands and
„ . . providing flowers for the service of Hiudu

tiono ongin. temples. In Bengal the caste is included
among the Nava-Sakha, and its members profess to trace their descent
from the garland maker attached to the household of Baja Kansa of
MathurA, who, when met by Krishna, was asked for a ohaplet of
flowers and at once gave it. On being told to fasten it with a string,
he, for want of any other, took off his saored thread and tied it, on
which Krishna most ungenerously rebuked him for his simplicity
in parting with his paitd , and announced that for the future his
caste would be ranked among the Sudras. Like others of the higher
castes, the M&l&kdrs claim to have originally oome from Mathura in
the reign of Jahangir. They are few in number, but in every Hindu
village there is at least one representative, who provides daily
offerings of flowers for the temples and marriage tiaras for the
village maidens.

They are divided into two main groups — the Phulk4tAM&li,
_ . ... who make ornaments, toys, eto., from the pith

e m s e uro. Q j ^he sol&, and the Dok&ne-M&li, who keep
shops. The former group is again broken up into R&rhi, B&rendra,
and Athghari&, the last of whom are supposed to be descended
from eight families outcasted for some cause now forgotten. Their
sections, which are shown in Appendix I, belong to the ordinary
Brahmanical series, and are supplemented by the regular rules
regarding prohibited degrees. In Dacca, according to Dr. Wise, the
caste has only one gotra , Alamy&n, and two dah % or unions, between
which there is no real difference. If, however, a member of one
union marries into a family belonging to the other, the marriage
feast will be more expensive than if he took a bride from his own, as
he must invite the members of both dais to the ceremony. The
bridal dresses must be made of red silk brought from Murshedabad,
as cotton cloth is prohibited. The bride is always carried in a palki
or palanquin, while the bridegroom rides on a pony or in a Sedan
chair. Malis marry their daughters as infants, forbid widows to
marry again, and do not recognize divoroe. If a wife is proved to
be unfaithful, she is turned out of the caste, and her husband performs
a sort of penance to purify himself from the slur of having associated
with her.

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MALI.

The MiUk&rs are all Vaishnavas by creed, and it is said that
. . none of them worship Siva. A Gos&in is their

liglon * guru, while their Brahman is eommon to them

and to the Nava-Sakha.

44 AM4li will not cultivate with his own hands, and never works
. as a kitchen-gardener, the gardeners of Bengal

upation. being generally Chandals and Uriyas. Many

M41is, however, hold land as occupancy raiyats, which they cultivate
by means of hired labourers. In Dacca members of the caste keep
shops for piece-goods, practise medioine, act as vaccinators, and
take service in temples. Their principal occupations, however, are
making wreaths, fabricating artifical ohaplets and toys from the pith
of the sola ( Hedysarum lagenarium ). The garlands placed every
morning before idols are collected and arranged by Malakars, who
nevertheless refuse to paint figures, this being the profession of the
Ganak and Rangrez. All the tinsel decorations put on the images
and their carriages are designed by Malakars. At marriages their
services are indispensable, for they prepare the crowns ( Mukuta )
worn by the bridal pair. Morover, no bride would oonsider the
attire complete unless her hair was adorned with a Khopajura, or
ornament ior the hair-knot, made with leaves of the jack-tree mixed
with white Bela blossoms, while at one side of it they place a rose or
some other bright flower. For the bouquet delivered on the bridal
morning the M&ldk&r expects to be paid a rupee.

“ The profession of a Malakar requires a considerable knowledge
of flowers, for some are forbidden to be used in religious services
and others can only be exhibited before the shrines of the deities
to whom they belong. Thus the ‘Dhattira* is saored to Siva;
the ‘ Apar&jitA 1 (Clitoria ternatea) to Kali; the 4 Bakas 1 ( Ju&ticia
adhatoda) to Saraswati ; and the ‘ Asoka * (Jone«ia asoca) to Sashthi.
The ‘Java’ (Hibiscus rosa Sinensis ) or China rose is of most
unluoky omen, and can only be presented to K&li, but not to other
idols, nor employed at weddings.

44 Strong scented blossoms are selected for religious offerings,
and these in Bengal are the 4 Champa ’ (Michelia Champaca ),

‘ Charnel i 9 (Jasminum grandiflorum), 4 Jui ' (Jasminum auricu -
latum), 4 Bela’ (Jasminum Zambac), 4 Gandhr£j 9 (Gardenia florida ),
and the 4 H6rsingir' (Nyctanthes arbor tristis).

44 Chaplets offered to idols must be tied with the dried fibres of
the plantain stem, not with string, and if pioked and arranged by
one not a MaUkar they are unclean. From sixteen to twenty-four
annas a month are received by the garland-maker for providing
a daily supply of flowers to a temple ; but, as with everything else,
the price of bouquets has greatly risen, and a rupee only
procures about half the quantity it formerly did.

“One of the chief occupations of this caste is inoculating for
small-pox and treating individuals attacked by any eruptive fever.
Hindus believe that Sitala, the goddess of small-pox, is one of seven
sisters, who are designated Motiya, Matariyi, Pakauriya, MasurikA,
Chamariya, Khudwa, and Pansa. The first four are varieties of
small-pox, the names referring to the form, size, and colour of

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the pustules ; the fifth is Variola maligna ; the sixth is measles ; and
the seventh is water-pox. Every MaUkir keeps images of one or
more of these goddesses, and on the first of Chait (March 15th) a
festival is held, and the M&lak&rs superintend the details. It is
popularly called ‘ Malfbagh/ from the garden where the servioe is
performed, and thither Hindus and Muhammadans repair with
offerings of clotted milk, oocoanuts, and plantains in the hope of
propitiating the dreaded sisters.

“ When small-pox rages, the Malakars are busiest. As soon as
the nature of the disease is determined, the Kabiraj retires and
a Malakar is summoned. His first act is to forbid the introduction
of meat, fish, and all food requiring oil or spices for its preparation.
He then ties a lock of hair, a oowrie-shell, a piece of turmerio, and
an article of gold on the right wrist of the patient. The sick person
is then laid on the ‘ Majh-patta/ the young and unexpanded
leaf of the plantain tree, and milk is prescribed as the sole article of
food. He is fanned with a branch of the saored nlm , and any one
entering the chamber is sprinkled with water. Should the fever
beoome aggravated and delirium ensue, or if a child cries much and
sleeps little, the Mali performs the Mata puj&. This consists in
bathing the image of the goddess causing the disease and giving
a draught of the water to drink. To relieve the irritation of the skin,
pease-meal, turmerio, flour, or shell-sawdust is sprinkled over
the body.

“ If the eruption be oopious, a piece of new cloth in the figure of
eight is wrapped round the ohest and shoulders. On the night
between the seventh and eighth days of the eruption the Mali has
muoh to do. He places a waterpot in the sick room, and puts on it
alwa rice, a cocoanut, sugar, plantains, a yellow rag, flowers, and
a few nim leaves. Having mumbled several mantras , he recites
the kissa , or tale, of the particular goddess, which often occupies

six hours.

“ When the pustules are mature, the Mali dips a thorn of the
karaunda (Caristta) in til oil, and punctures each one. The body
is then anointed with oil, and cooling fruits given. When the scabs
(dewli) have peeled off, another ceremonial, called ‘Godam,’ is
gone through. All the offerings on the waterpot are rolled in a
cloth and fastened round the waist of the patient. These offerings
are the perquisite of the Mali, who also receives a fee.

“ These minute, and to our ideas absurd, proceedings are
practised by the Hindus and Muhammadans, including the bigoted
Farazi, whenever small-pox or other eruptive fever attacks their
families. Government vaccinators earn a considerable sum yearly
by executing the Sitald worship, and when a child is vaccinated
a portion of the service is performed.”

The M&lis of Behar hold a respectable position among the castes
of that province. They rank with KumMrs,
itiis. Koiris, and Kahars, and Brahmans will take
water from their hands. The main difference between them and the
Bengal M&lis is that they praotioe widow-marriage, and do not take
an extreme view of the necessity of getting their daughters married as

Digitized by ^.oosle

MALI.

MALL AH.

infants. With this exception, the aooount given above of the Bengal
M&lis applies for the most part to the Behar members of the oaste.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of
M&lis in 1872 and 1881 : —

D18TBJCT.

1872.

1881.

District.

1872.

1881.

Bardwan

Bankura

Birbhum

Midnapur

Hugbli

Howrah

24-Parganis

Nadiya

Khulna

Je>sore

M Dished abad

Dinajpur

Kajshahye

Rmgpur

B'cia

P.ibna

I>arj 1 1 injj

Jalpigon

Kueh Behar

Dacca

Paridpur

Bakarganj

3Iaiimuisinh

Tipperah

8,876

535

686

6.166

} 2,662

2,686

2,980

1,811
2,483
2,184
' 462
2,068
1,075
2,986
143
600

*2,767

1,8*7

2,204

11.886

6,244

2,171
1,684
2,225
7,9*2
( 2,469

l 1,163
2,390
6,845
2,176
4,323
3,613
3,138
890
1,456
864
1,731
220
960
2,166
2,769
2,310
1,401
2,379
2,480

Chittagong

Noakhali

Patna

Gya

Shahabad

:::

Saran

Champaran ...

Monghyr

Bhagalpur

Purniah

Maldah

SantAl Pargan&s

Cuttack

Puri

Balasore

Tributary States

Hazaribagh

Lobardagfi, ...

Singbhum

Manbhum

Tributary States ...

856

339

4,995

8,577

3,432

} 16,222

4,691

4,974

5,360

2,877

4,663

567

1,262

3.346

11,669

1,305

10,606

1,556

6,205

4,105

224

106

6,611
7,671
6,100
s 11,543
t 10,004
6,909
7,867
6,249
4,428
25
883
8,728
4, *93
11,186
1,690
9,777
2,765
2,750
2.369
8,601
452

MAIi, a synonym for Bhuin-
mdli; a sept of the Mai we Raj -
puts in Chota Nagpur.

Malik, a title of RAjputs, Telis
and Dorns in Behar.

M&lik, a title of Kandhs in
Orissa.

Malikaulid, a section of Bab-
hans in Behar.

MalitwAr, a section of B&b-
hans in Behar.

Malj&da, a bastard or son of
a harlot.

MAIkarnautii a mul or section
of the S&tmulia or Kishnaut sub-
caste of Go&las in Behar.

M&lkas, a section of Osw&ls.

Malkhajania , from malkhdjana ,
a payer of land revenue, a zemin-
dar.

M&lki&, a mul or section of
the Satmulia or Kishnaut sub-
caste of Grodl&s in Behar.

Mai la, wrestler, a title of
Khandaits in Orissa and of the
Aguri or Ugrakshatri caste in
Western Bengal.

Mallabhumia, a sub-caste of
Bauris in Western BengaL

Mall&h, Ar., a sailor, a boatman, a generio term current in
Behar and Bengal as the popular designation of various boating
and fishing castes. Mr. Sherring notices this general use of the
word, but adds that there is a speoial tribe of Mallahs divided into
the following sub-castes:— (1) Mall&h, (2) Muria or Muri&ri, (3)
Pandubi, (4) Bathawa or BadhariyS, (5) Chaini, Chain or Chai,
(6) Sur£y£,(7)Guriy£, (8) Tiar, (9) Kulwantor Kulwat, (10) Kewat f

Digitized by {jOOQie

MALL AH.

MALO.

He also mentions the tradition that all these “ are desoended from
a common father, by name NikhAd, but that tne Kewats alone were
bora in lawful wedlock.” NikhAd is merely a variant for NishAd or
Nishada, a Dra vidian tribe mentioned in the Rig- Veda, from whioh
several of the fishing castes may possibly derive their origin. It is
clear, however, that while the ten groups enumerated by Mr. Sherring
may at one time have belonged to a single tribe, that tribe must have
broken up some time before the Arabic word Mallah can have been
current in India long enough to stand any ohance of being adopted
as a tribal name. If, then, Mr. Sherring’s statement is correct, a
point on whioh there is room for some difference of opiuion, it merely
shows that a certain number of distinct fishing castes believe
themselves once to have formed part of a larger group, to which they
give the modern name MallAh, a foreign word denoting an occu-
pation, not a caste, and throwing no light on the affinities of the
people who use it.

The castes to which the term Mallah is ordinarily applied in
Bengal are the following : — Gonrhi, Chain, Bind, Kewat, Tiyar,
Muriari, Surahiya, Malo, and J Aliy A Kaibartta.

MallametiA, Mdtid , or Matial ,
a sub-caste of BAgdis in Bengal,
by profession fishermen and
earth-workers.

Mallik, a sub-caste of MAls in
Birbhum ; an honorary title of
Brahmans, Dorns, Kayasths, Kai-
barttas, and Subamabaniks in
Bengal ; a section of the BiyAhut
and KharidAhA KalwArs and of
MAlis and Sonars in Behar.

Malo, a sub-section of the
Kautsasa seotion of Utkal Brah-
mans.

M&lo, a title of the class of
RAjputs to whioh the Raja of
Bishenpur claims to belong. It
is a plausible oonjecture that this
name, unheard of among ad-
mitted RAjputs, may have arisen
from the connexion of the Raja
with the MAI tribe, who are
numerous in Bankura.

Malo-Patniy a Dravidian boating and fishing caste,
. . . supposed by Buohanan to have come from

Dterna. ' -ru ■ ure. Western Iudia. This opinion, however, is

unsupported by any evidenoe beyond a resemblance of names, which
may be either wholly accidental or may have arisen from the
tribal name Malo being oonfounded with the Arabio word MallAh,
‘a boatman.’ Dr. Wise considers the three fisher castes — the
Kaibartta, Malo, and Tiyar — to be “ undoubtedly representatives of
the pre-historic dwellers in the Gangetio delta. As a rule they are
short and squat, of a dark-brown oolour, often verging upon black.
Although Hindus by creed, they are fond of showy garments, of
earrings, and of long hair, which is either allowed to hang down in
glossy curls on their shoulders or fastened in a knot at the back of the
head. The whiskers and moustaches are thin and scrubby, the lips
often thick and prominent, the nose short with the nostrils expanded.
The physiognomy indicates good temper, seusuality, and melanoholy
rather than intelligence and shrewdness.” The sections of the Malos,
shown in Appendix I, seem on the whole to bear out the view that

Digitized by {jOOQie

MALO.

they are the remnant of a distinct aboriginal tribe, and not merely
an occupational group. These sections are peouliar to the Malos,
and do not appear to have been borrowed from any other caste.
I am unable to analyse them completely, but I venture the conjecture
that some of them are totemistio, the totems being the rivers, which
the Malos regularly worship. There are no sub-castes. The Raj-
bansi, which some authorities are disposed to regard as a sub-caste of
the Malo, are clearly Kochh, who have taken to fishing, while the
Kitaror Bepiri Milo, who deal in. but do not oatoh, fish, and derive
their name from their practice of cutting up their wares and selling
them by weight, are Muhammadans in no way connected with the
Malo caste.

The rule of exogamy is in full force among the Malo. A man
may not marry a woman of his own section or
armg0# of the section to whioh his mother belongs.

For the rest, marriage is regulated by counting degrees down to seven
generations in the descending line. Females are married as infants.
A price is paid for the bride, whioh of late years has risen to the
large sum of Bs. 100. The ceremony is of the orthodox type, the
giving of the bride and the bridegroom’s formal acoeptanoe of the
gift being the essential and binding portion of the rite. Polygamy
is permitted in theory, and a man may marry two sisters, provided
that he takes the eldest first. In practice, however, - 1 understand it
is unusual to marry a second wife unless the first proves barren.
Widows may not marry again, nor is divorce permitted. A woman
taken in adultery is abandoned by her husband and turned out of
the caste.

Malos as a rule belong to the Yaishnava sect. Their purohit
is a Patit Brahman, and their guru a Gosain.

Igl0n ' Special reverence is paid by them to the great

rivers on whioh they live, and these, together with their boats and
nets, have their regular seasons of worship. Khala-Kumari is
worshipped in Sravan (July- August), offerings are made to Bura-
Buri in fulfilment of vows, and lights are launohed on the water in
honour of Khwaja Khizr.

The dead are usually burned on the bank of a river, and the
...... ashes cast into the water. Srdddh is performed

sposa oe on thirty-first day after death, then once

a month for a year, and again on the first anniversary of the death.
Usually, however, the monthly srdddhs are lumped together towards
the dose of the year. In the case of persons who die a violent death,
the first srdddh is performed on the fourth day, and a final srdddh on
the thirty-first day.

Although the social rank of the Milos is low, and Brahmans

« . . will not take water from their hands, the Nipit

Social status. ^ ^ uguaUy wQrk {qt them# They m

on good terms with the Tiyar and Kaibartta, and members of the
three castes will even smoke together. The Malo, however, says
Dr. Wise, “ is the lowest in rank, while the Kaibartta and Tiyar still
dispute about their relative positions. The Kaibartta, again, is more
thoroughly Hinduised than either of the other two. A ridiculous

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Google

MALO.

MAL PAHAEIA.

distindtion is always cited in proof of the inferior rank of the Malo.
The Kaibartta and Tiyar in netting always pass the netting needle
from above downwards, working from left to right; while the Malo

I asses it from below upwards, forming his meshes from right to left
t is remarkable that the same difference is adduced by the Behar
fisherman as a proof of the degraded rank of the Banpar.” The
only titles met with among Milos are Minjhi, P&tra, and Bep&ri,
while among other fisher castes no honorary distinctions exist.
Under the Muhamadan Government they served as boatmen,
chaprisis, mace-bearers (asabardir), and staff-bearers (sonte-bardir)
in prooessions. They were also employed in conveying treasure from
Dacca to Murshedaoad, while a tradition still survives that early in
this oentury two of their number became great favourites with Nawab
Nasrat Jang, who presented them with golden spinning wheels for
their wives’ use. The Malos therefore extol the golden age that has
passed, and inveigh against the equality and degeneracy of the present.
M&los generally use a shorter Jalk4 boat than the Tiyars, but
when they fish with the long Uthar net they
ccupation. fasten two boats stem to stem. Like the

Kaibartta, the M&lo is often a cultivator, and in Bhowal he has been
obliged by changes in the course and depth of the rivers to relinquish
his caste trade. M4los manufacture twine, but not rope, and traffio in
grain, while those who have saved a little money keep grocer’s shops
or become fishmongers. Mdlo women sell fish in the baznrs, but in
some places this praotice is considered derogatory to their gentility
and is prohibited.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of
Mdlos in 1872 and 1881

District.

1872.

1881.

District.

1872.

1881.

Bard wan

Bankura

Birbhum

Midnapur

Hughh

Howrah

24-Parganis

Nadiya

Khulna

Jesaore

Murshedabad

Dinaipur ...

Rajshahye

Rangpur ...

Bogra ... . m ... ...

Pabna ... ... ... ...

Darjiling

Jalpigon ...

Kuoh Behar ...

Dacca

Faridpur

9,888

6,933

586

39,804

} 1,820

2,383

13,311

12,fi00

7,386

1.203

1,768

1,892

3,637

16,490

251

‘*6,437

6,033

454

22,079
3,158
40,236
f 2,097
l 657

1,542
10,672
3,390
10,765
7,598
1,222
1,484
1,148
1,120
6,566
1,175
3
133
1,949
2,389

Bakarganj

Maimansinh

Tipperah

Chittagong

Noakhali ...

Patna ... ...

Gya

Shahabad

:::

Saran

Charoparan

Mongnyr

Bhagalpur

Purnian

Maldah

Sant&l Pargan&s

Hazaribagh

Lohardag4

Singbhum

Manbhum

1,751
13,999
2,600
525
110
17,559
11,518
15,267
] 159,730

21,849

45,531

13,996

11,754

21,016

1,656

1,865

1,466

7,250

1,671

989

11,454

1,720

19,099
11,906
14,943
f 89,273
1 115,217
22,599
65,222
21,850
181891
27,570
4,281
2,889
8.475
10,924
443
1,918

Mdlo-Patni, a synonym for M41o. •

a Dravidian tribe inhabiting the Rdmgarh
. Hills in the Santdl Parganas, who until recently

rigin * lived by hunting and jhum or kardo cultiva-

tion Their tribal affinities are extremely obscure, and have formed

Digitized by {jOOQie

MAL PAHABIA.

the subject of some discussion. Buchanan 1 gives the following
account of them: — “The northern tribe 2 consider their southern
neighbours as brethren, and call them Maler , 3 the name whioh they
give themselves ; but the southern tribe, shocked at the impurity of
the others, deny this consanguinity, and most usually oall the northern
tribe Chet, while they assume to themselves the denomination of MAI
or MAr, which, however, is probably a word of the same derivation
with Maler. The MSI, however, divide themselves into three tribes —
KumArpali, DAngrpali, and MArpali; and they often call the
northern mountaineers Sumarpali, thus, as it were, acknowledging
a common origin, which I have little doubt is the fact. The manners
and language of the three southern Pali are the same, and they
speak a very impure dialect of the Bengalese. The three Pali
were originally local distinctions, but nqw all live intermixed, have
exactly the same customs and language, and intermarry but there
are five real hereditary distinctions, whioh descend in the male
line. The highest rank consists of the Rajas or ohiefs and their
descendants, all of whom are called Singhas or lions. Next to
these are certain families that were at one time rich, and are
called Ghrihi. They assisted their poorer brethren with loans, and
seem to have been a kind of bankers, like the Yaisyas of the Hindus.
They never seem to have held any offioe in the State. The third in
rank were the Manjhis or chiefs of villages, and none but persons of
this rank were ever permitted to hold this offioe. The persons of
the Ahriti or fourth class were by birth hunters, and at first in all
probability were the lower and labouring olass, like the Sudras of
the Hindus ; for what is now considered as the lowest and fifth olass
is composed of the Naiyas, who are allowed to have originally
been the priests, but have been totally discarded from that offioe.”
Against Dr. Buchanan’s description of the MAI PahAriAs as a
Hinduised branch of the Maler, we have to set Colonel Dalton’s
opinions 4 that the former tribe “ appear to be altogether unconnected
with the RAjmahAl hillmen, ” and Mr. Ball’s statement, 5 based
upon personal observation, that the MAI PahAriAs “ are altogether
distinct in appearance, oustoms, and language from the Asal PahAriAs,
who occupy the RAjmahAl hills proper.” It should be observed,
however, that even in Dr. Buchanan’s time (1807-1814) a widebreaoh
had been established between the two groups, and the southern
PahAriAs at least strenuously disowned all kinship with the northern.
Sixty years later the breach must have been greatly widened by the
MAI PahAriAs continually adopting Hindu oustoms, while the Mates
seem to have stubbornly resisted all impulses in that direction, and
this movement may possibly account for the impression formed by
Mr. BalL On the question of language the evidenoe seems to be
inconclusive. Colonel Dalton gives a very meagre list of words
obtained by Dr. Coates from a MAI PahAriA prisoner in the HazAri-
bAgh Central jail. On this he observes:— “I cannot say I have

1 Eastern India , ii, 126. 8 Mater is the plural of Mal6.

8 The Mates of Bajmahal. 4 Ethnology of Bengal , p. 274

8 Jungle Life in India, p. 229.

e 2

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MAL PAH ASIA-

found in it analogues sufficient to justify its association with the
Dravidian dialects, but it is equally unlike Kol.” 1 A comparison
of the list with Mr. Droese’s Malto Vocabulary shows, however, that
some slight correspondence may be traced between the language of
the Male and the mongrel dialect spoken by the MAI PahAriAs*
Thus, chapia , ‘the foot’; Malto, sole of the foot: ekore , ‘to go’;
Malto, eke : tindidnd , ‘ to eat,’ seems to be a causal formed in Hindi
fashion from the Malto tinde, ‘ to feed : ’ maler , ‘ a man,’ is the
nominative plural of male : bather , ‘ a woman,’ and bather , ‘ a
daughter,’ are curiously like the Malto batg> ‘ virginal,’ and bdtgni ,
‘a maiden’: chichu is the Malto word for fire: dmma is not far
removed from amu, the Malto for water : chiore 9 ‘ to give,’ appears
to be from the same root as chiye: malaga 9 ‘no,’ merely adds a
syllable to the Malto mala : and hikrd, ‘ a cock,’ may perhaps be
connected with the Malto kukre, ‘ to cry out.’ These slight resem-
blances of course fall far short of establishing the identity of the
two tribes, but they tend on the whole to show that Buchanan’s
opinion is not so dearly untenable as has been sometimes supposed
to be the case. Mr. Droese, with whom I discussed the subject some
years ago, considered the two tribes to be of common origin. This
view is borne out by the fact that they understand one another’s
language readily, though they assert that the dialects are different ;
as well as by the identity of their ancestral worship, a point in which
all races display a remarkably conservative spirit. As for the anta-
gonism which at present prevails between the north and south
PahAriAs, it is only another instanoe of what has been commonly
observed in Chota Nagpur, that two sections of the same tribe
which in any way happen to become separated are often far more
strongly opposed to one another than if they had been originally
distinct trines.

The MAI PahAriAs are divided into two sub-tribes — MAI PahAriA

_ ... proper and KumAr or Komar-BhAg. The

0 ur * latter group, which corresponds with Buchanan’s
KumArpali, is the more Hinduised of the two. The septs are given
in Appendix I. They appear to be identical with Buchanan’s
“ hereditary distinctions.” He would doubtless have discovered the

fact that they are exogamous had the subject of exogamy attracted
any attention at the time when he wrote. Their names are
apparently titular, and throw no light upon the affinities of the
tribe. The MAI PahAriAs also observe a table of prohibited degrees,
which differs little from that defined by the standard formula
referred to in the artiole on Bais. They have no traditions worth

mentioning, except a vague legend that their first parents were bom
from a cow. The same story is told of the ancestor of the Pachete
family in Manbhum, whose estate borders on the country where
the MAI PahAriAs are now found. It is possible, indeed, that the
Pachete BAj may in early times have extended further to the east,
and that the head of that house may have been the Baja of whom
Buchanan speaks as having formerly appointed from among the MAI

Ethnology of Bengal , p. 274.

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MAL PAHXBIX.

Pah&ri&s a dewan, a faujd&r to oommand in predatory expeditions,
and the m&njhis or headmen of villages. This, however, is the

however, is the

C t conjecture. The tendency to borrow a myth current in a
olding family may be frequently observed in Ohota Nagpur.
Marriage is either infant or adult. Girls are rarely married
M . before the age of ten or eleven, and usually

amag0 ’ not until they are fully grown up. In the

latter case sexual intercourse before marriage is tacitly recognized,
it being understood that if an unmarried girl beoomes pregnant
her lover will oome forward and marry her. A professional match-
maker (sithu) is usually employed by the bride groom’s people to
searoh for a suitable wife. When his selection has been made, a
visit of inspection is paid by the parents; and if the proposed
bride is approved of, the price to be paid for her is settled by
personal discussion. Custom ordains that the amount shall be an
odd number of rupees, not less than five, nor more than twenty-five.
It must be paid either in a lump sum or by instalments before the
marriage can be celebrated. On the occasion of the final payment
the bridegroom’s parents send by the sithu some bajra beer and
a 8dri for the bride, which is made over to her maternal unole
to be kept till the day of the wedding. Particular inquiries were
made regarding the reason for thus selecting the maternal uncle as
a sort of trustee for the bride’s peculium, but no definite result was

arrived at; and this usage, undoubtedly one of great antiquity, seems
only to be explicable as a survival of female kinship, a system of
which no other traces are met with in the tribe. Shortly after the
bride-price has been paid, the sithu is again sent to the bride’s house,
this tune bearing an arrow wound round with yellow thread tied in
as many knots as there are days to the date proposed for the wedding.
The bride’s people make their preparations aooordingly, undoing
a knot as eaoh day passes. On the day before the bridegroom arrives
and is lodged near the bride’s house. Early next morning a big feast
is given, after which the bridegroom takes his seat facing the east
in a sort of arbour of sal branches built for the purpose. Here he
is joined by the bride, dressed, like him, in a new ootton wrapper
dyed yellow with turmerio, who sits besides him while the maidens
of his company oomb out her hair. A sdl leaf oup is offered to
the bridegroom, containing red lead, which he daubs on the bride’s
forehead and the parting of her hair. . The girls who oombed the
bride’s hair take her hand, dip a finger into the red lead, and make
seven spots on the bridegroom’s forehead. This final and binding rite
is received with a shout of applause, which is the signal for the Dom
musicians in attendance to beat the drums for a dance. Towards

evening the wedded pair go off to the bridegroom’s house, where
the whole party spend the night in dancing and drinking. Poly-
gamy is permitted, and, in theory at least, there are no restrictions
on the number of wives a man may have. Praotically, however,
the poverty of the tribe and their hand-to-mouth fashion of living
set strict limits to the exercise of this right, and few Pahdrids
indulge themselves with the luxury of a seoond wife, except when
the first happens to be barren. A man may marry two sisters, but

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MAL PAH APIA.

he must follow the order of age, and if already married to a
younger sister, may not take an elder sister to wife.

A widow may marry again. She is expected to marry her
late husband’s younger brother if there is one ; but if he does not
wish to marry her, any member of the caste not barred by the
prohibited degrees may have her on paying a bride-prioe of Rs. 2
to her late husband’s relatives. No ceremony is required, nor is
stndur used. The husband merely gives the woman a new cloth
and takes her to his house. A wife may be divoroed with the
sanction of the caste oouncil or panchdyat for adultery or persistent
and incurable ill-temper. As a rule arrangements of this sort
are effected by mutual consent, the parties tearing a sdl leaf in two
before the panch&yat as a symbol of separation. The seducer of
a married woman is required to repay to her husband the sum
which she cost him as a virgin. Divorced wives may marry
again in the same manner as widows, and for the same bride-
prioe, which is paid to their own, not to their late husband’s
relations.

At the head of the PahAriA religion stands the sun, to whom
. reverential obeisance is made morning and

Ugl01L evening. On occasional Sundays a special
worship is performed by the head of the family, who must prepare
himself for the rite by eating no salt on the previous Friday and
fasting all Saturday, with the exception of a light meal of molasses
and milk, taken at sunset after bathing. Before sunrise on Sunday
morning a new earthen vessel, a new basket, some rice, oil, areca
nuts, and vermilion, and a brass lota of water with a mango branch
stuck in it, are laid out on a clean space of ground in front of the
house. The worshipper shows these offerings to the rising sun and
prays, addressing the luminary as ‘ Gosain, ’ that he and his family
may be saved from any specific danger or trouble that is supposed to
threaten them. The rioe is then given to a goat, which is decapi-
tated while eating by a single blow from behind. The body of the
animal is then cooked and served up at a feast, of which the neigh-
bours partake; the head alone, which is deemed prasdd , or sacred,
being carefully reserved for the members of the family. Next in
honour to the sun are Dhart i MAi , mother earth ; her servant, or as some
say sister, Gardmi ; and Singhb&hini, who bears rule over tigers,
snakes, scorpions, and all manner of noxious beasts. To the earth
goats, pigs, fowls, etc., are offered in Ashar and Magh, and buffaloes
or goats are sacrificed about the time of the Hindu Durga PujA to the
goddess SinghbAhini, who is represented for sacrificial purposes by
a lump of clay daubed with vermilion and oil and set up in front
of the worshipper’s house. The village MAnjhi officiates as priest.
The MAgh worship of Dharti Mai is clearly the festival described by
Colonel Dalton under the name Bhuindeb, the earth god. 1

“The MAls plant in their dancing place two branches of the
sAl tree, and for three days they dance round these branohes, after
which they are removed and thrown into a river, which reminds one of

1 Ethnology of Bengal , p. 274.

Digitized by {jOOQie

MAL PAHABIA,

the Karma festivals as solemnised by the Oraons and Kols in Chota
Nagpur. On this occasion the men and women dance vis-d-vis to
each other, the musicians keeping between. The men dance holding
each other above their elbows, the left hand of one holding the
right elbow of the other, whose right hand again holds the left
elbow of the arm that has seized him. The fore-arms touching are
held stiffly out and swayed up and down. They move sideways,
advance, and retire, sometimes bending low, sometimes ereot. The
women hold each other by the palms, interlacing the fingers, left
palm upon right palm, and left and right fore-arms touching. They
move like the men.”

Two curious points may be added. The man at whose instance
or for whose benefit the oeremony is performed must sleep the night
before on a bed of straw ; and the dancing party, who are greatly
excited with drink, shout continually bur, bur {jpudendum muliebre ),
a mode of invocation believed to be especially acceptable to the
goddess. In this somewhat indelioate cry we may perhaps see a
barbarous and undraped reference to the vis genetrix natures so
prominent in many early forms of belief.

Besides these greater elemental deities, the Mil Pah£ri6s recog-
nize and propitiate a number of vaguely-defined animistic powers,
chief among whom is Chordanu, a malevolent spirit, needing to be
appeased at oertain intervals with sacrifices and the first fruits of
whatever crop is on the ground. To the same class belongs MaM-
d&nd, for whom eggs are the appropriate offering. Among the
standard Hindu deities Kali and Lakhi Mai (Lakshmi) are honoured
with sparing and infrequent worship, the offerings in this case being
the perquisite of the village headmen.

Ancestor worship is in full foroe, and the sacra privata of a
Mil Pahiria household correspond precisely with those observed by
the Mili tribe. The Lares are known to both by the familiar term

Qumo Gosain or Deota, the gods of the wooden pillar ( Qumo ), 1
whioh supports the main rafters of the house. Around this centre
are grouped a number of balls of hardened olay, representing the
ancestors of the family, to whom the first fruits of the earth are
offered, and the blood of goats or fowls poured forth at the foot of
the pillar that the souls may not hunger in the world of the dead.
As every household is guarded by its anoestral gods, so every
village has a tutelary deity of its own — Larem agri custodem, who
lives in a sal tree within the village. This tree is daubed with red
lead and worshipped on certain occasions, and may on no account be
cut down. The tribe have no priests, and the head of the household
or village, as the case may be, performs all religious and ceremonial
observances. Brahmans, however, are to some extent held in honour,
and presents are given to them on festal occasions.

The dead are usually burned, and a pieoe of bone is saved from
_ . _ _ _ the flames to be thrown into a river or a deep

Disposal o o tank th e waters of which do not run dry. The

relatives are deemed impure, and may not eat salt for five days. At

1 The word is Malto.

Digitized by LjOOQle

MXL PAHXBIX.

MXLUX.

the end of that time they are shaved, and partake of a feast provided
by the eldest son. The funeral expenses are a first charge on the
estate, and after these have been paid the balanoe is equally divided
among the sons, daughters getting no share. Very poor persons,
who cannot afford to give a feast, bury their dead in a recumbent

E osition with the head towards the south, and give nothing but a
ttle salt and meal ( sattu ) to the friends who attend the funeral.
In Buchanan’s time it was the universal custom to bury the dead on
the day of death. No srdddh is performed by the MAI PahAriAs
proper, but some of the wealthier members of the EumAr BhAg sub-
tribe are beginning to adopt a meagre form of this oeremony in
imitation of their Hindu neighbours.

The tribe believe jhum tillage and hunting to be their
original occupations, and a large proportion
upa on. 0 f the tribe still adhere to these primitive
modes of livelihood. Their system of jhum cultivation is thus
described by Buchanan : — “ On the hills the bari is neither ploughed
nor hoed. The men cut the trees and burn them, and the women
sow the seed. In the first year they scatter over the surfaoe
seed of the kinds of millet called kheri and kangni , and with a
stick pointed with iron (khanta) form small holes, in whioh they
drop seed of maize, janird y and a pulse oalled bora or kalai. In the
second year they plant only maize and janirdP By the third year
the land is worked out, and the cultivator must seek a fresh patch
of jungle for his operations. A large tract of hill land is therefore
required to keep a PahAriA village gomg. Buohanan observed that
although their progress in agriculture was greater than that of their
northern neighbours, their huts were much more wretched and dirty,
their olothing more scanty, and their women less cleanly and worse
provided with ornaments. In bad seasons they supplement their
scanty food-supply with jungle roots and herbs, of which, like the
Sikkim Lepohas, they have a minute empirical knowledge. Of late
years many have taken to plough cultivation at the foot of the hills,
where they hold land as occupanoy raiyats at the rents fixed in the
current settlement. Standing as they do wholly outside the regular
caste system, they oan hardly be said to have any social status in the
ordinary sense of that phrase. From the Hindu point of view their
diet is certainly unolean, for pork, fowls, and all kinds of fish are
deemed lawful food; but the {west of their abstaining from beef,
snakes, lizards, and field-rats would probably lead the average
Hindu to regard them as a shade purer than the MAlAs and their
congeners the Oraons.

MAI PahAriA proper, a sub-
tribe of MAI PahAriAs in the
SantAl ParganAs.

MAIpAni, a section of Mahesris
in Behar,

Malta, a sept of Chiks in
Chota Nagpur.

MaluA, Malua y a sub-caste of
Bauris in Western Bengal whose
original residence is said to have
been Manbhum ; a section of
Chiks or PAns in Chota Nagpur;
a sub-tribe of Kandhs in Onssa.

MAluA or ManuA f a sub-oaste
of KarangAs in Western Bengal.

Digitized by LjOOQle

MALWAB.

MANER.

Malwar, a olass of braziers who
make kharu and other brass
ornaments for the hand.

Malwe or M&r-R&jput, a
sub-tribe of RAjputs in Chota
Nagpur.

M£n, a title of Bangaja
EAyasths in Bengal.

Mana, a title of Dakshin-
Rdrhi and Bangaja Eiyasths.

Mananman&ras, a mu! or sec-
tion of the Chhamulia Madhesid
sub-caste of HalwAis in Behar.

Mandr, a title of Oheros in
Chota Nagpur.

Manarii, a section of BAb-
hans in Behar.

ManchhihS, Manchid, a kul
or section of BAbhans in Behar.

Mdnddi , a synonym for Kochh.

Mandal, (i) a headman of a
village ; (ii) a title of Eaibarttas,
Chandals, GoAlAs, Souris, Sad-
gops, Telis, Tantis, and BAuris ;
of NApits, Eurmis, EapAlis, Pods,
Santals, and Subarnabaniks ; (iii)
a sub-caste of DhAnuks in Pur-
niah. Some Brahmans in Bankura
bear the title; of RAjputs in
Behar; a title of Khambus in
Darjiling.

Mandap, a section of Eum-
hArs in Singbhum.

Mandar t probably a variant
of Mandal, a title of cultivating
Dhinuks ; a pangat or section
of Dosadhs and Eadars ; a title
of the ChAb and Eurin sub-
castes of Gonrhis ; a title of the
Ma^hayA sub-caste of Eoiris and
Telis ; a section of the ChaubhAn
sub-caste of Nuniyas and of Sunris
and Ehatwes in Behar ; a section

of the EanaujiA sub-caste of
Guilds and a title of Eishnaut
GoAlAs in Behar ; a title of
GangotAs and Eewats and of
EharwArs in LohardagA.

MandarAnA, a sub-caste of
Sutradhars in Western Bengal.

MandArane, a sub-caste of
8unris in Western Bengal.

Mandari, a title of Hindu
JolAhas in Behar.

MAndAronA* a group of the
Aswini T Antis and of DwAdas
Telis in Bengal; a sub-caste of
Dorns in Bengal.

Mind hay A f a section of GoA-
14s in the North-Western Prov-
inces and Behar.

MAndiAr, a sept of BA j puts in
Behar.

MandilwAr, a section of the
Amashta sub-caste of EAyasths
in Behar.

Manding, man y medicine, a
praotiser of medicine, a sub-sept
of the Nah-pA sept of Sherpa
Bhotias.

MandrA, a section of BAbhans
in Behar.

Mandri, a section of the EAria r
caste in Behar.

Mandriar, a section of
Mahilis in Chota Nagpur.

Mandus, a title of GanjwAr
Sunris in Behar.

Manem-ma, a sept of the
PhAgu sub-tribe of Takhas in
Darjiling.

Maner t a section of the SAt-
muliA Maghaya sub-caste of
EAndus in Behar.

Digitized by {jOOQie

MANEBAB.

MANGAB.

Marie rar, a section of Awa-
dhia Hajjdms in Behar.

Manerid, a sectiou of the
Biy&hut and Kharidaha Kalwdrs
in Behar.

M&ngaf, a section of the Biy&-
hut and Kharid&h& Kalw&rs in
Behar.

Mangal, a section of the Agar-
wila caste in Behar.

Mangar f crocodile, a totem-
istic section of Kurmis in
Chota Nagpur and Orissa ; a
section of Binjhi&s in Chota
Nagpur.

Origin

structure.

and internal

Magar , Than j/, one of the fighting tribes of Nepal,
belonging, with the Gurung Khas and Sunu-
war, to the Mukhya group, and highly esteemed
for their military qualities. The Mangars
believe their original habitat to have been the valley of Dhoreh
on the banks of the Karnali-Bheri river in Western Nepal :
thence they spread to Likhukhola, and thus gradually made their
way into Eastern Nepal. The internal structure of the tribe, so far
as I have been able to ascertain it, is shown in tabular form in
Appendix I. The subject, however, is an extremely obscure one, and
I am not yet in a position to throw much light upon it. There are
four sub-tribes — Ath&rah Panth, Burathoki, Gharti, and Sakhali.
The Gharti are probably descended from emancipated slaves (see
article Gharti); the origin of the rest is uncertain. The exogamous
septs are very numerous, and the list given in Appendix I contains
many names of the territorial type oommon in India along with
others whioh seem to be nioknames of the founders of septs, such as
are found among the Tibetans and Limbus. Judged by their
physical characteristics, the Mangars must be olassed as Mongoloid,
their naso-malar index being slightly lower than that of the Tibetans,
while their oomplexion, eyelids, stature and the general out of
their features stamp them as a cross in which the Mongolian
element on the whole predominates. The septs are exogamous,
the rule being that a man may not marry a woman of his own sept.
There seem to be no rules excluding more than one sept in marriage.
Prohibited degrees are reokoned by the standard formula for three
generations in the descending line.

Girls are married after they attain maturity, and sexual license
M before marriage is tolerated on the under-
Mamage ’ standing that if a girl becomes, pregnant,

the father of her child shall at once be called upon to marry
her. The marriage ceremony is of the Hindu type, sindurddn ,
or the smearing of vermilion on the bride’s forehead, being its
binding portion. Brahmans usually officiate, but this is not essential.
A man may marry two or three wives, the only limit in practice being
his ability to maintain them. A widow may not marry again by
the standard ritual {by ah) appointed for the wedding of a spinster,
but a man may take her to live with him, and she is counted as his
wife. Her children by her second husband are considered legitimate ;
they rank as Mangars (instead of belonging to a special category
like the offspring of Brahman widows in Nepal), and they share

Digitized by {jOOQie

MANGAS.

in their father’s property on equal terms with the children of a wife
married in the regular form. Moreover, if any one runs away with
a widow, he has to pay damages to the man she is living with just
as if she were his regular wife. In Nepal husbands are entitled
to wreak summary vengeance on the seducers of their wives. An
adulterer taken in the aot is killed offhand, and the faithless wife
has her nose out off. In such cases the question of divoroe clearly
does not arise. But in British territory, and I believe frequently in
Nepal itself, disagreements of this sort are settled without resort to
bloodshed. The wife goes off with her paramour, and the husband
claims from the latter as damages the amount of the bride-prioe
which he paid for the woman in the first instanoe. The panch&yat
enforces his claim, and justioe is held to have been satisfied.

The religion of the Mangars may best be described as lax
ReHjrion. Hinduism tempered by survivals of an earlier

lgm animistio cult. Satya Narain is one of their

favourite deities. SansAri and AitAbAreh are also worshipped with
offerings of goats, fowls and pigeons. Upadhya Brahmins assist at
the cult of Satya Narain and of the recognized Hindu gods; but
Sansari and AitAbAreh are worshipped by the heads of households
without the assistance of priests. Brahmans are not held to be
degraded by serving as priests in Mangar families.

The funeral ceremonies of the Mangars, whioh are the same as
, , those of the Gurung and Sunuwars, are curious
rhspoeal 0 0 and interesting. Immediately after death the

corpse is tied with three pieces of rope to a stout pole and oarried
to the grave. There it is stripped, dressed in new olothes, and
laid on its back in the grave with the head pointing to the north.
The forehead is smeared with sandal wood paste. One of the
maternal relatives of the deceased, usually the maternal unole, is
then ohosen to act as Ipriest for the oooasion, and to oonducfc the
ritual appointed for the propitiation of the dead. First of all
he puts in the mouth of the corpse some silver coins and some coral,
which is greatly prized by the Himalayan raoes. Then he lights
a wick soaked in clarified butter, touches the lips with fire, scatters
some parched rice about the mouth, and lastly covers the face
with af cloth called pujunri. Two bits of wood, about three feet
long, are set up on either side of the grave. In the one are cut
nine steps or notches forming a ladder for the spirit of the dead to
ascend to heaven ; on the other every one present at the funeral outs
a notch to show that he has been there. As the maternal unole

steps out of the grave, he bids a solemn farewell to the dead and
calls upon him to ascend to heaven by the ladder that stands
ready for him. When the earth has been filled in, the stiok notched
by the funeral party is taken away to a distance and broken in two
pieoes, lest by its means the dead man should do the survivors
a mischief. The pole used to carry the corpse is also broken up, and
the spades and ropes are left in the grave.

When the mourners return home, one of their party goes ahead
and makes a barricade of thorn bushes across the road midway
between the grave and the house of the deoeased. On the top of

Digitized by ^.oosle

MJlNGAE.

MANIMANAEAS.

the thorns he puts a big stone on which he takes his stand, holding
a pot of burning incense in his left hand and some woollen thread
in his right One by one the mourners step on the stone and pass
through the smoke of the inoense to the other side of the thorny
barrier. As they pass, each takes a piece of thread from the man
who holds the incense and ties it round his neck. The object of
this ourious ceremony is to prevent the spirit of the dead from
coming home with the mourners and establishing itself in its old
haunts. Conceived of as a miniature man, it is believed to be unable
to make its way on foot through the thorns, while the smell of the
inoense, to which all spirits are highly sensitive, prevents it from
surmounting this obstacle on the shoulders of one of the mourners.

Agriculture, trade and soldiering are the chief occupations of

the Mangars, but no means of earning a
^Occupation and aodai ii ve ]i}j o0( j comes amiss to them, provided that

it does not involve doing things which are
reoognized as the proper business of the lower castes. They abstain
from beef, but eat pork and domestio fowls, and indulge freely in
strong drink. Before marriage a Mangar will eat any sort of food
withaGurungorKhas,butafterhehasbeen married, he can only take
chupatties from these castes, and may not take rice or ddl. Mangars
smoke in the same hookah with Gurungs, Khas and Brahmans.

Mangardj, a title of Khanddits
in Orissa.

Mdn-Gaurdnga, a sub-caste of
Sutradhars in Murshedabad.

Mang-beh-pd, a rut or sept of
Dejong Lhori Bhotias, the mem-
bers of which are of a low mixed
origin.

Manglagpa, a sept of the Pdn-
thar sub-tribe of Limbus in Dar-
jiling, whose ancestor was ridden
by a god and danced.

Mangmu, a sept of the Yan-
gorup sub-tribe of Limbus in
Darjiling.

Mangoyak, a sept of Limbus
in Darjiling.

Mangrdti, a section of Kdmis
in Darjiling.

Mangrauni, a section of Bdb-
hans in Behar.

Mangthong, a sept of the
Phdgu sub-tribe of xakhas in
Darjiling.

Mang-tshang-wa, a rut or
sept of the Ruichhung sub-tribe
of Dejong Lhoris or Bhotias of
the south.

Mangyong, a sept of Limbus
in Darjiling.

Manharid , shopkeepers who
deal in miscellaneous goods,
chiefly fanoy artioles.

Mani, a sub-caste of Sunris
in Maldah.

Manihdri, a functional group
of Jugis in Bengal.

Manikchakdudhpurd, a mul
or section of the Naomulid or
Majraut sub-oaste of Godlds in
Behar.

Mdnikmahanta, Mdnikmanta ,
a title of Kurmis.

Maniksharid, a seotion of
Babhans in Behar.

Manimandras, a section of
Madhesid Halwdis in Behar.

Digitized by {jOOQie

MANJAR.

MAE.

Manjar, oat, a totemistio seo-
tion of Rauti&s and a sept of
Kharwars in Chota Nagpur.

Manjari, a section of K&m6rs
in Singbhum and the Santdl
Parganas.

Manjhal-TuriyA a sub-caste
of Lohars in Ghota Nagpur.

in Eastern Bengal ; a section of
Kadars; a title of M&los in
Eastern Bengal ; of Parhaiyas
and Khand&its in Chota Nagpur ;
a section of Doms and Dos&dhs
in Behar; a title of Gheros and
Mahilis; a title and a sept of
Mil Pahdrifo ; a title of Tdntis
in Behar.

Manjhan, the title of the
headman of the Tior and Bom
castes in Behar who has under
him a messenger bearing the
title of Chhariddr. The Maghaya
Barhis and the Ardiy& Tens of
North Bhdgalpur also have
headmen bearing this title. In
the case of the Tatter the juris-
diction of each manjhan is said to
extend to 22 villages.

M&njhi, (i) the steersman of
a boat, a ferryman : hence, a boat-
man generally, (ii) A village
headman among the SantAls,
and a title by which Sant&ls
frequently describe themselves in
answer to inquiries as to their
caste, (iii) A title used by the
Kaibartta, Kah&r, Kumh&r, Teor,
Patni, Kochh, Bigdi, Mala, Jelia,
Goala, the Mals of the K&jmahal
hills, the Ehetauris in the Sant&l
Parganas; a seotion of Sunris
in Behar ; a title and a sept of
Bauris and Kharwars ; a title of
Asuras, and Korwas in Chota
Nagpur; a sept of Nagesars
in Chota Nagpur; a title of
Binjhi&, Rautia, Oraon, Turi;
a title of KapaKs and Kaw&lis

Manjhid, a sub-tribe of Khar-
w6rs in Southern Lohardagd.

M&njhi-Khil, a sub-sept of the
Hansda, Mamdi, and Tudu septs
of Sant&ls.

M&nki, Mdnki Sahib , an
honorific title bestowed in Ban-
kura on the eldest son of a well-
to-do cultivator of the Bhumij
tribe. In Chotd Nagpur Proper
the term denotes the headman of
a group or circle of villages. It
is also the designation of a sept
and a sub-tribe of Mundas. See
MurA

M&nnA a title of Kaibarttas,
Mayar&s, and Nipits in Bengal.

Manoharshahi, a group of the
Fatehsing Telis in Murshedabad ;
a sub-caste of Kotals in Western
Bengal.

ManrayA a kul or section of
Babhans in Behar.

Manti&ni, a title of the Band
caste in Bengal.

Mantraw&r, a seotion of Kur-
mis in Chota Nagpur and
Orissa.

Malted Rajput , a small cultivating caste of Chota
Nagpur, who say that they came from Malwa and were formerly
Kshatriyas, but dropped the sacred thread and took to the plough.
Colonel Dalton thought them ‘ more Aryan than anything else, with
a dash of aboriginal blood/ But if this view be correct, it seems
difficult to account for their abandoning the characteristic Hi j put
sept names and adopting the totems peouliar to Dravidian tribes.
i They have Brahmans for priests, worship the host of Hindu gods,
and, like the Kandhs, especially adore those among their anoestresses
who became S&tis, though in their present degraded state they allow

Digitized by ^.oosle

MAS.

MAEICHIGRAM.

of widow-marriage, and a man always takes to wife, by the custom
called tagai, his elder brother’s widow.’

M4r, rioe broth, a totemistio
sept of Mud das in Chota Nagpur.

Marai, a wild animal, a
totemistio sept of Pdns and
Gonds in Chota Nagpur.

Maraid, a section of' the
Kadar caste in Behar.

Maraiya, a title of Barhis in
Behar.

Maralbai, a sept of Rdjputs in
Behar.

M&ramagri, Rajbansi, Barui
or Bhuiyd Magh , a sub-tribe of
Maghs in the Hill Tracts of
Chittagong.

Marandi, a sept of Santdls.

Marar, a title of Kumhdrs
and Tdntis in Behar ; a title of
Surahiyds, Tiyars, Kewats, and
of Gareris ; a section of the
Bdnsphor sub-caste of D6ms in
Behar.

Mar&r, a title of Arndts in
Behar, indicating some degree
of social importance and deemed
superior to either Raut or Kha-
was; a title of Sunris, Jolhas; a
title of the headmen of the Dom
caste in Behar who have under
them servants called Chharidars
to execute or communicate their
orders; a title of the Dhusid
sub-caste of Chamdrs ; a title of
the Majraut sub-caste of Godlds ;
a section of the Jathot division
of the Parbatti-Kurin sub-caste of
Gonrhis ; a title applied in Behar
to Kurmis who by age or personal
influence have attained a leading
position in their villages ; a title
of Beld&rs and Nunias.

Marare-Sihaul, a mul of the
Edsyap section of Maithil Brah-
mans in Behar.

Marare-Jagaul, a mul of the
Kdsyap section of Maithil Brah-
mans in Behar.

Marare-Ukki, a mul of the
Kdsyap section of Maithil Brah-
mans in Behar.

Marare-Barhampur, a mul of
the Kdsyap section of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar.

Marare-Adauri, a mul of the
Kdsyap section of Maithil Brah-
mans in Behar.

Marare-Misrauli, a mul of the
Kdsyap section of Maithil Brah-
mans m Behar.

Marare-Rajaur&i a mul of the
Kdsyap seotion of Maithil Brah-
mans in Behar.

Marare-Jagatpur, a mul of
the Kdsyap seotion of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar.

Mardahd, a pangat or section
of Dosddhs in Behar.

Mardanid, barbers, a sept of
the Rautar sub-tribe of Thdrus
in Behar.

M&rh, a title of Kaibarttas
in Bengal.

Mdrhwdr, a sept of Rdjputs
in Behar.

Maria, a sept of Chiks in
Chota Nagpur.

Maridli, a sub-caste of Tdntis
in Bengal.

Marictr, a sept of Rdjputs in
Behar.

Marich-bhuswal, a section of
Sondrs in Behar.

Marichigrdm, a samaj or local
group of She Sdbarna gotra of

Digitized by {jOOQie

MABICHIGBAM.

MABLI.

P£sch&tya Baidik Brahmans in
Bengal.

Marichw&r, a sub-tribe of
Th&rus in Behar.

Marik, a title of T&ntis and
a section of the B&nsphor sub-
caste of Doms in Behar.

M&rik, a title of B&ruis in
Bengal; a section of the K&dar
caste in Behar which intermar-
ries with the Barik, Kapari,
M6njhi, Mandar, and Naiy£ sec-

tions, but not with the rest; a
title of Hindu Jolhas, Doms,
Dos&dhs, GkriMs, Koiris, Kumh6rs,
and other castes in Behar.

Marj-bhuswal, a section of
Son&rs in Behar.

Markam, a sept of Go&l&s in
Chota Nagpur.

M&rkanda, M&rkand&rk, a

pur or section of S&kadwipi Brah-
mans in Behar.

, a small cultivating caste found in Bh&galpur and
. the Santal Pargan&s. They have neither sub-

0rigilL oastes nor sections, and I can find no evidenoe

tending to affiliate them with any existing caste or tribe. Their
own tradition is that they are descended from Mdrkandeya Muni,
a sage who was outcasted for eating the leavings of certain Brahmans
who had invited him to a feast.

The Markande practise infant-marriage and allow polygamy
without setting any definite limit on the
Marmge. number of wives a man may have. Widows

may marry again, and enjoy full freedom of choice in selecting a
second husband. Divorce is not recognized. A faithless wife is
simply turned out of the caste.

In matters of religious and ceremonial observances the M4r-
kande exhibit little divergence from the stand-
Rebgl0IL ard of orthodox Hinduism. In the worship

of the greater gods they employ Brahman purohits, who are not
held to be degraded by serving the caste in this capacity. The
minor god Karmani is worshipped by the members of the household
without the assistance of priests.

In point of social standing Markandes rank with Goalas, Kurmis,
and Koiris. Brahmans will take water and
Soci « m certain kinds of sweetmeats from their hands.
Their sole occupation is agriculture. The bulk of the caste are
occupancy raiyats, but some have risen to the position of tenure-
holders.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of
theMdrkande caste in 1872 and 1881 : —

District.
Shahabad
Darbhanga
Monghyr
Bhagalpur
Pnrnian
Santal Parganas

1372.

1881.

6,780

1,983

3,687

3,384

6,661

3,698

3,044

4,390

M&rkandeya, a gotra or seotion
of the Baidya caste in Bengal.

Marli, a sept of Hos and
Sant&ls.

Digitized by t^oosle

MABMA.

MABYA.

Marm£, Myammd or Ro&ng
Magh , a sub-tribe of Magbs in
the Hill Traots of Chittagong.

Marmu, a sept of Mundas in
Chota Nagpur.

M&rndi, grass, a totemistio
sept of SantALs.

Marotsa, a sept of Maghs in
the Hill Tracts of Chittagong.

M&rre, a section of Bdbhans in
Behar.

Marriy a section of M&hilis
in Manbhum, the members
of which do not allow their
daughters to enter their houses
after marriage.

Marriky a section of Raj wire
in Western Bengal.

Marsy&ngdi, a thar or sept of
Mangars in Darjiling.

Marturia, a section of Lohdrs
in Behar.

Maru4, a mul or section of
the Chhamulid Hadhesia sub-
caste of Halwais in Behar.

Marudy Maruabadi ( mama =
Indian oom (Eleu*ine corocana)

and dbddi = cultivator), a con-
temptuous epithet applied to
Hindustanis and especially to
up-oountry boatmen who ply on
the Bengal rivers on acoount of
their stupidity in comparison with
Bengalis.

Maru&h&» a mul or section of
the Tinmulid Madhesia sub-caste
of Halwiis in Behar.

Maruipori, a sub-caste of
Brahmans in Bengal, who have
degraded themselves by officiating
as priests at the funerals of
Sudras.

Marwahe, a section of the
Bah&unajdti sub-caste of Khatris
in Bengal.

Mdrtvari, literally a native of
M&lwa or Marwar. Most of the
Marwdris found in Bengal are
bankers and traders, usually
Jains. The name gives no defin-
ite indication of caste, but it
will be found as a rule that a
M&rwdri belongs to the Agarwal,
Oswal, Maheswari, or Srimal
castes. In faot all traders from
Rajputana aud the neighbouring
district 8 are commonly called
Mdrwdris.

a small iron-working caste, possibly of Dravidian
descent, found in the Santdl rarganas. The
amage * information at my disposal does not warrant

any conjecture regarding their origin. So far as I can ascertain,
they have neither sub-castes nor sections, and their marriages are
regulated by a very rough enumeration of prohibited degrees, which
a dmit s of intermarriage between persons descended from the same
parents after the expiry of three generations on the father’s side
and one on the mother’s. Daughters are married either as infauts
or as adults, and polygamy is allowed without any theoretical
limitation on the number of wives a man may take. Widows may
marry again, but are under no restriction in their choioe of a seoond
husband. Divorce is permitted for adultery or for inability to
agree, and divorced women may marry again.

Maryas profess to be Hindus, but they do not employ Brahmans
Reiteio f° r religious and oeremonial purposes, and the

uglon * functions of the priest are discharged by
seleoted members of the caste. The dead are burned and the ashes

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MABYA.

MATIA.

buned, but no regular sraddh is performed, and the only funeral
observance consists of a feast given to the caste brethren by a man’s
heir ten days after his death.

The caste ranks with Lohars, ChamArs, and the lowest grades
of Dravidian Hindus. They eat fowls and
indulge freely in spirituous and fermented
liquors. Iron-working is believed to be their original occupation,
and most of them are blacksmiths at the present day. Some,
however, have taken to cultivation, and a few are said to have risen
to the comparatively high position of tenure-holders.

The Census Report of 1881 returned 857 MAiyAs in the SantAl
ParganAs.

Masdlchi, a title of BAgdis, 1 Mastdn, Mahasthdn or Hdlid,

probably arising from their
employment as palanquin- bearers,
one of the duties of a bearer
being to carry a torch. It is also
possible that the term may denote
an office held by the Bagdi caste
under one of the Rajas of
Western Bengal.

Masanta, a title of Tilis in
Bengal.

Masdre keraut, a section of
the BiyAhut and KharidAha
KalwArs in Behar.

Mdsaur, a section of the SAt-
mulia MaghayA sub-caste of
KAndus in Behar.

Masawdr, a sub-caste of Kum-
hArs in Chota Nagpur and
Behar.

Mdschatak, a gain of the
SAndilya gotra of Rarhi Brah-
mans in Bengal.

Mdski, a thar or sept of Man-
gars in Darjiling.

Mdsle, a sub-caste of Telis in
Bengal.

Masnath, a sub-caste of Telis
in Behar.

Masrakhiyd, a section of the
BAnsphor sub-caste of Doms iu
Behar.

a sub-caste of Utkal Brahmans.

I Mdsya, a functional group of
Jugis in Bengal.

Matasydsi, a gain of the 8An-
dilya gotra of BArendra Brah-
mans in Bengal.

Matha Sdg, a vegetable, a

totemistio sept of Mundas in

Chota Nagpur.

Mathgrdmi, a gain of the
KAsyapa gotra cf BArendra Brah-
mans in Bengal.

Math i a, brass bracelet, a
totemistic sept of Mundas in

Chota Nagpur.

Mathrwdr, a section of Kur-
mis in Chota Nagpur and
Orissa.

Mdthur, a division of Brah-
mans and a sub-caste of KAyasths
in Behar.

Mathurdbdsi, a section of

Goalas in Behar.

Mathurd or Mathurdbdsi, a
sub-caste of GoAlAs in Orissa.

Mathurid, a sub-caste of Telis,
Barhis and Lohars in Behar and
Chota Nagpur.

Mdtid, a sub-caste of BAgdi
in Bengal who. are cultivators
and earth- workers.

Digitized by LjOOQLe

MATIAL.

MAULIK.

Mdtial, a sub-caste of Eewats
in Orissa.

M&ti&l, a sub-caste of Bdgdis
in Bengal who sell fish and vege-
tables.

Mdti&l, Metel , Metid , “terr©
Alius,” a title of Kaibarttas in
Orissa and also of Bdgdis, Bauris,
Koras, and other earth-working
castes in Bengal. As a rule the
term is used only by outsiders.

Matibans-Tdnti, a sub-caste of
Tdntis in Orissa.

Mat ' um, a title of the Bhumij
tribe in Manbhum.

Matsendra, king of fish, a
section of Jugis.

Mattaridj a sub-caste of Hal-
wdis in Behar.

Matti, a title of Godlds in
Behar.

Matw&rd, a section of Raj-
wdrs in Western Bengal.

Maudgalya, a gotra or section
of Brahmans, Baidyas, Kiyasths,
Subamabaniks and Telis in

Bengal ; a section of Sudras
in Eastern Bengal ; of the
Paschim Kuliyi Sadgops ; an
eponymous section of Kdmdrs,
Mdlis, Madhundpits, and Ndpits
in Bengal ; a section of Bdrendra
Sunris in Eastern Bengal.

Maudgalya or Madhukulya,
a section of Pods in Central
Bengal.

Maugh, fish, a totemistio
sept of Mundas in Chota
Nagpur.

Maughd, a group of the Bdren-
dra Sunris in Eastern Bengal.

Mauharid, a sub-caste of
Rastogis in Behar.

Maulavi, a title of Bauris in
Western Bengal.

Maulik , a synonym for Dhimdl.

Maulik, a hypergamous group
of KSyasths, of the Ddkshindtya
Baidik Brahmans, Baidyas, Sad-
gops, Chasddbohas, and Subarna-
baniks in Bengal. The name
appears to be connected with
mul, root, stock, or origin.

Loyd, Nay a, a Dravidian caste of Manbhum and
Western Bengal, who olaim affinity with the Mai Paharias of
Rdjmahal, and who may possibly be an offshoot from that tribe,
to whom, as being the earliest settlers in the country, the duty of
propitiating the forest gods may easily have come to be assigned.

The Maulik of Northern Manbhum and the Santdl Pargands are
divided into six sub-castes — Chandana, Hari-

Internal structure. y £ n QJ . M ^| or M&P| Sauriy4, Ftej-

bansi, and Deobansi. The last two groups call themselves Hindus,
and allege that their ancestors were at one time in possession of the
Pdndra estate in Manbhum. The sections of all the sub-castes are
totemistio. A man may not marry a woman belonging to his own
section, nor one who falls within the usual formula for reckoning
prohibited degrees.

Adult-marriage was formerly in vogue among the Mauliks, as it
. is still among the Mundas and Oraons. Of

amage * late years the example of the Hindus around

them has led to the adoption of inf ant- marriage; and this practice,
involving, as is ordinarily believed, an advance in social respectability,

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MATTLIK.

tends to become constantly more popular. The earlier custom,
however, still survives, and sexual indiscretions before marriage are
said to be not uncommon, and as a rule are leniently dealt with.
After the bride has been selected and a small bride-price paid, the
bridegroom is married to a mango-tree and the bride to a mahud*
This is followed by the ordinary oeremony performed under an open
canopy made of sdl leaves. The two Hinduised sub-castes employ
a Brahman to recite mantras on this occasion ; for the others a man of
their own caste serves as priest. The binding portion is the marking
of the bride's forehead with vermilion, which is done by the bride-
groom with the janti or cutter used for slicing areca nut.

Polygamy is not formally recognized, but a man is allowed to
take a second wife if his first wife is barren. A widow may marry
again by the sanga form, and is subject to no restrictions in her choioe
of a seoond husband. Great license of divoroe is allowed, the tearing
of a sal leaf in symbol of separation being the only form requires
to complete the act. Divorced wives may marry again.

Although, as has been stated above, the Deobansi and Rajbansi
_ «. sub-castes call in Brahmans of low rank, known

“ glon# locally as Panres, to assist in their marriage

oeremony, even they have not yet taken to worshipping Hindu deities
or employing Brahmans as their family priests, and the caste as
a whole still adheres to the rude animism onaracteristio of the abori-
ginal races of Western Bengal. Their offices as priests of the various
spiritual powers who haunt the forests, rooks, and fields and bring
disease upon man and beast are in great request. A Bhumij or
a Kurmi who wishes to propitiate these dimly-oonoeived but potent
influences will send for a Maulik to offer the necessary sacrifices in
preference to a JAjk or priest of his own caste — a faot whioh speaks
strongly for the antiquity of the settlement of the former in the
oountry. Besides serving as priests, they also oolleot lac, catechu,
and other jungle produce, and work as cultivators and day-labourers.
Their social rank, according to orthodox ideas, is exceedingly low,
and no Hindu will take water from their hands. Mauliks them-*
selves will eat boiled rice with Bhuiyas, and sweetmeats, etc., with
Sant&ls and Mundas. The more advanced Deobansi and R&jbansi sub-
castes abstain from beef, and believe themselves to be thereby raised
in ceremonial purity and social estimation above their fellows. It is
ourious to observe that while the non-Hinduised Mauliks will eat no
one's leavings, the more orthodox sub-castes have no prejudices on this
point so far as the members of the higher Hindu castes are oonoemed,
and will eat the leavings of Brahmans, R&jputs, and K&yasths.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of
Mauliks in 1872 and 1881

District.

1872.

1881.

District.

1872.

1881.

Monghyr

5,492

606

Lotardsg* m ~.

871

Bhagalpur

Singbhum ... ... ... 1

578

SantSl Parganfts

9,179

8,524

Manbhum

687

5,446

Haaaribagh

688

Tributary States ...

179

f 2

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MATJLO.

MAYABA

Maulo, a title of Muchis in
Western Bengal.

Maulwdr, a sept of the Suraj-
bansi division of Ed j puts in
Behar.

Maunachh, a sept of Ed j puts
in Behar.

Maunas, a section of Brah-
mans ; a sept of Edjputs in
Behar.

Maura, a mul or section of the
Kanaujid sub-caste of Hajjdms
in Behar.

Maureswari, a sub-caste of
Telis in Bengal.

Maurhid, a section of the
Banodhid and Jaiswar Kalwars
in Behar.

Mauriy&r, a pur or section of
Sdkadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Mautkaha, a gotra or section
of Nepdli Brahmans.

Maw&lii a title of Chanddls
in Eastern Bengal.

Mawar, peacock, a totemistio
sept of Chiks in Chota Nagpur.

Maw&r, a title of Bdbhans in
Behar.

Maydhdng, a thar or sept of
Khambus in Darjiling.

Modaky Maird, Kurt, the confectioner caste of Bengal
Proper, a heterogeneous functional group, to
■toSuw. and k 16111 * 1 be distinguished from the Madhundpit, on
whom popular usage sometimes confers the
titles Modak and Kuri. Some, indeed, regard the Madhundpit as
merely a sub-oaste of Mayard, but it will be seen from the artiole
on Madhundpit that there are grounds for believing that group to
be a distinct homogeneous caste owing its origin to a schism among
the Ndpits. In Central Bengal the Mayard caste is divided
into four sub-castes — Rdrh-dsram, Mdyur-dsram, Aja-dsram,
and Dharm-dsram or Dharm-sirt. In Dacca, where there are
comparatively few Mayards and the occupation of sweetmeat-making
is almost wholly in the hands of the Madhundpit, the former group
has only two sub-castes — Ekpdtid and Dopdtid. The distinction
between these is curious : the former in their marriage ceremony
simply carry the bride seven times round the bridegroom, while the
latter carry both round in concentric circles, the bridegroom following
the inner and smaller oirole of the two.

The sections of the Mayard caste which are given in the
Appendix show a singular mixture of elements derived from the
Brahmanical gotras and survivals from the earlier totemistio seotions
which we find among the non- Ary an castes. It is impossible now
to determine what tribes may have contributed to form the Mayard
caste as we now find it, but the fact that distinct traoes of totemism
may be discerned will perhaps be held to justify the conjeoture that
the group is not wholly of Aryan extraction. As a rule marriage
within the section is strictly prohibited, but in some parts of the
country the law of exogamy is disregarded, and marriage is
regulated solely by calculation of prohibited degrees. Mayards
have not yet developed a full-blown system of hypergamy, but
they appear to be on the road towards doing so, for the families
who bear the titles Ash, Bardt, Dds, and Nandi are oalled

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MAYABX

Kulin8. At present, however, the distinction is meaningless so far
as marriage is concerned. Men belonging to Maulik families may
marry Kulin womeu, and the only privilege attached to Kulinism is
the right to receive presents of cloth, etc., at marriages and other
domestic festivals.

Mayar&s profess to marry their daughters as infants, hut they
are not so particular in this matter as the
Marriage. higher castes, and instances of girls marrying

after puberty, though rare, are said to occur occasionally without
entailing any serious loss of reputation for the family concerned.
The marriage ceremony is performed in accordance with orthodox
usage ; sampraddn , or the giving and receiving of the bride, being
the essential portion of the rite. A price, varying according to the
social status of the parties, is paid for the bride. Polygamy is
permitted, no limit being placed, in theory at least, on, the number of
wives a man may have. Widows may not marry again, and divorce
is not recognized. A woman taken in adultery is turned out of the
caste.

The caste profess to be orthodox Hindus, belonging for the most
part to the Yaishnava sect. They regard
6 ^ on * Ganes as their special deity, and make images

in his honour. The special season for his worship is towards the
end of the cold weather, before the sugarcane crop has been cut,
and freshly-prepared molasses cannot be used in the manufacture of
sweetmeats until the god has been duly propitiated. Brahmans
officiate as their priests, and are not looked down upon by other
members of the sacred order. In Manbhum, Mohan Giri, Sahib Mi&,
Sashthi, and Bh&du are among their minor gods, whom the
members of each household worship with sacrifices of goats and
offerings of rice, fruit, and sweetmeats. In this domestic worship
Brahmans take no part. The dead are burned and the ashes thrown
into the Ganges or any river that may be conveniently situated
for the purposes. Sraddh is performed on the thirty-first day after
death.

Mayaras believe the making of sweetmeats to be their original
occupation, but many of them at the present
upa on. day nave entered Government service or taken
to trade, while a few are engaged in agriculture as tenure-holders and
occupancy raiyats. They will, however, on no account cultivate
sugarcane themselves or take any part in the preparation of
molasses. In a country where sweetmeats form a staple article of
diet, and are often the only food that an orthodox Hindu can
partake of on a journey, when he has no time to go through the
elaborate process of preparing his own food, it is essential that there
should be no doubt about the social status and ceremonial purity of
the caste whioh supplies the community with sweetmeats. Mayaras
therefore rank among the Navasakha, and Brahmans will take
water from their hands. Their own rules regarding diet are those
of most respectable Hindus. They will eat cooked food only with
Brahmans, and will take water or sweetmeats from members of the
Navas&kha group.

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MA.YAEA.

MECH.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of
Mayarto in 1872 and 1881, the figures for Halwais being induded
in the former year for the districts of Bengal Proper : —

District.

1872.

1881.

District.

1872.

1881.

B&rdwan

Bunkum

Birbhum

Midnapur

Hughlt

Howrah

M-Pargan&s

Nadiya

Khulna

Jessore

Murshedabad

Dinajpur -

Rajshabye

Kangpur

Bogra

Fabna

17,040

8,718

10,066

0,010

} 8,278
6,864
8,337

1,842

8,064

546

909

5,798

200

1,522

12,240
7,578
8,165
7,066
f 6,382
l 2,769
2,990
17,076
737
8,334
5,359
494
898
18,160
1,080
1,894

Darjiling

Jalpigon

Kuch Behar ...

Dacca

Fandpur

Bakarganj

Maimansioh

Tipperah

Chittagong

Noakhali , M

Maldah

San til Parganis 'I

Lohardagi

Singbhum }■

Manbhum 1

Tributary States J

270

2,112

897

1,450

6,017

5,901

231

816

279

The flgifrea
are included
in the table

on Halwis.

65
1,104
836
1,297
881
270
4,780
666
288
428
1,219
f 9,045
26

« 672

1 11,863
l 71

Ma vur, a totemistio section of
the Bhar caste in Manbhum, the
members of which will not touch
or till the peaoook.

Mayur-£sram f a sub-caste of
Mayar&s in Central Bengal.

Mazumd&r, a title of Nipits
in Bengal.

Jfttdt, Mechiy a Mongoloid tribe found in the Goalp&rd district
of Assam and in the Himalayan Terai from
. origin ‘ the Bhutan Du&rs westward to the Konki

river. In Northern Bengal they have given their name to the
Meohi river, and in Goalp6r& to the large tract of country called
Meohpdrd, the proprietor of which, however, calls himself a fUjbansi
and repudiates all connexion with theMech tribe. 1 Ritter 2 identifies
them with the Dhim&l, and remarks that in point of agricultural
skill they are about on a level with the G&ros. Fr. Muller 3 classes
them among the Lohitio raoes, and says they are of the same stock
as the K&chdri or Bodo. A good observer 4 writes thus of the
Meoh: — “They are probably the original inhabitants of the Dar-
jiling Terai, and are a distinctly Mongolian race, with fair skins
and large bones and limbs. Their physical appearance and charac-
teristics are quite distinct from the Th&ru of the Western Terai.
They are disappearing, absolutely dying out, faster than any race of
which I have known or read. The reason is, no doubt, that their
distinctive cultivation is by jhum, which is barred by Government
forest conservancy, and the spread of settled plough cultivation
from the South.” In another plaoe Mr. Oldham speaks of the
Dhim&l and R&jbansi as “dark-skinned Dravidians, and lays stress
on the oontrast between them and the fair-complexioned Mech.
The compiler of the Assam Census Report , on the other hand,
includes the Meoh and the Kochh under the generic term Bodo, and
appears to regard both as belonging substantially to the same race.

1 Dalton, Ethnology of Bengal, p. 88..

2 Erdkunde, iv, 109.

* Allgemeine Ethnographic , p. 406.

4 Mr. W. B. Oldham, late Deputy Commissioner of Darjiling.

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MECH.

A singular reference to both Mech and Dhimdl is met with
in the Iimbu legend that when the three brothers, their ancestors,
were first dropped by the gods from Heaven they fell in Benares,
whence they wandered northward, seeking the place appointed for
them to dwell in. So they came to the Khacluir, or mule-country i as
the Nepalese call the tract at the foot of the hills between the
Brahmaputra and Kosi rivers. There the youngest brother deter-
mined to settle, and became the father of the Koohh, Dhimal, and
Mech ; while the two others went further into the hills, and their
descendants are the Limbus and Khambus of Nepal. A third story
makes Assam the proper home of the Mech. and seeks to connect
them with the Gdros. Others, again, say that the Meoh and Dhimdl
are descended from Nepalese who, being driven out of Nepal for
breaches of caste rules, settled in Khachar and married women of
the locality. Without attaching any historical value to these traditions,
we may perhaps infer from them that considerable intermixture of
blood has taken plaee between the inhabitants of the hills and the
plains, and that types originally distinot may in this way have been
greatly modified and to some extent amalgamated. The process of
fusion has, however, not yet gone so far as to render it impossible
to discern in the Mech traces of a primary Mongolian stock, while
the Dhimdl tribe appears to be connected by features and com-
plexion with the black races, who may be conveniently designated
aboriginal.

The Mech of the Darjiling and Jalpigori distriot are divided
into two sub-tribes 1 — Agnid-Mech and Jdti-
lnteraai atructura Mech, which are practically endogamous, seeing

that a member of the former group cannot marry into the latter
Without thereby forfeiting his position in his own group. The
Agnid sub-tribe have twelve exogamous septs, which are shown in
Appendix I, while the J dti-Meoh regulate marriage by the standard
formula calculated to three generations in the descending line. The
same rule is observed on the mother’s side by the Agnid-Mech,
who, however, extend the prohibition in the male line to seven
generations.

The Agnid-Meoh admit only Bijbansis into their own group ;
while the Jdti-Mech receive also Dhimdls, Dhekrds, and Agnid-Meoh.
In all cases the new member has to give a feast as a sort of entrance-
fee and by way of proclaiming his membership. Such admissions are
usually brought about by men of the higher groups taking mistresses
from the women of the lower, and thus forfeiting their plaoe in their
own society.

Among the Agnid-Meoh the usual age for marriage is twelve
years for females and sixteen for males, though
Marriage * here, as elsewhere, the influence of Hinduism

shows itself in the desire on the part of well-to-do people to get their
daughters married at a still earlier age. For the most part, however,
the earlier usage of free oourtship still holds its ground, and the

1 Further east, I understand, that four sub-tribes are known — Agni&-
Mech, Assam-Mech, KAchrfc-Mech, and Thampdi-Mech. Kdchrd-Meoh are
probably the same as the Kachin*

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MECH.

consent of the parents is sought only after the young people have
arranged matters between themselves. Even then, if objections are
raised, the girl often solves the difficulty by going off with her lover
and thus compelling her parents to take steps to get her married.
The same system prevails among the J&ti-Mech, but with them the
age for marriage ranges from sixteen to twenty for both males and
females, and it is not unoommon to find a woman married to a man
younger than herself. The bride-price, called mothom ihekd by Agnia
and chumnd or sodha by the J&ti-Mech, is supposed to be fixed with
reference to the beauty and accomplishments, and may rise in
the Agnid sub-tribe as high as Bs. 120 or even more. Among the
J&ti-Mech it is supposed to be fixed at Bs. 63, but this amount may
be, and usually is, reduced by haggling.

In both sub- tribes the marriage ceremony is exceedingly simple.
Among the Agnid-Mech the essential and binding portion of the
rite is the formal washing of the bride’s feet in the presence of the
friends and relatives of both parties with water poured from a bamboo
water-vessel (chunga). This being done, she enters a room where the
bridegroom is awaiting her, and consummation is supposed to take
place at once. When she comes out a oock and a hen are sacrificed
and two betel leaves and areca nuts offered to Siva, the latter articles
being afterwards eaten by the wedded pair. Feasting then com-
mences by the bride serving first the bridegroom, and after him the
other guests, with meat and boiled rice. Ine J dti-Mech do not wash
the bride’s feet, but make the pair exohange betel leaves and areca
nuts. This is held to be the essential rite, and is followed by the
sacrifice of a oock and hen to Siva. 1

A widow may marry again, but if she has obildren it is deemed
more respectable for her to live as a widow with her late husband’s
relatives, to whom in any case her children belong. If, however, she
determines to contract a second marriage, she may not marry any
relative, whether elder or younger, of her deceased husband, but
must return to her parents’ house and get married from there by an
informal ceremony called nika , in which the bridegroom makes with
his little finger a single spot of vermilion on the bride’s forehead.
Fowls are sacrificed as in the regular form, but the bride’s feet are
not washed, nor does she exchange betel leaves and areca nuts with
the bridegroom. The bride-prioe for a woman marrying a seoond
time is reduced to one-half of the original amount, and if she marries
a third time to one-fourth. In the presumably rare case of a woman
marrying for the fourth time, no bride-price at all is paid. A
remarried widow is deemed to be socially the inferior of a woman

1 Some of my correspondents distinguish three modes or forms of marriage :
thus — (1) the ordinary marriage, in which the parents’ consent is obtained before
the girl goes to her husband ; (2) the dakud marriage, in which the bride elopes
or is carried off, and may be reclaimed by her parents if the bride-price is not
paid ; (3) the ohar sundi marriage, when a girl takes a fancy to a man, goes to
nis house of her own accord, and sits as a suppliant by the symbol of the
ghar-devi , which stands in the comer of the chief room. In such cases, after
refusing the girl as a matter of form, the man is bound ultimately to yield
to her importunity. Clearly, however, these are not so much forms of marriage
as modes of proposing marriage.

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MECff.

married as a virgin, and is not entitled to serve boiled rice to the
guests assembled on any public or ceremonial oooasion. Divorce may
be effected, with the sanotion of the panch&yat, at the wish of the
parties or on the ground of the wife’s adultery. In the latter case
the seducer is liable to repay the bride-price to the injured husband,
and cannot marry the woman until he has done so. Divorced wives
can only be remarried by the curtailed ceremony in use at the
remarriage of a widow, and they hold the same social status as the
latter. Their children also belong to the father. It would seem at
first sight that the unrestricted courtship permitted by the Mech can
hardly promote a high standard of female chastity, and in fact sexual
intercourse before marriage, though not expressly recognized, is
virtually tolerated, it being understood that if a girl becomes
pregnant her lover will at once oome forward and marry her.
Regarding married women, however, a different order of ideas
prevails, and as soon as a girl has finally pitched upon a husband,
she is required to be strictly faithful to him. A ourious usage, to
which parallels may be found in European folklore, deserves notice
in this connexion. In the courtyard of every Meoh house a sij plant
(Euphorbia Indica ) is carefully tended as the abode of the god Siva
and as the emblem of conjugal fidelity. Should the leaves of the
plant wither, this is supposed to show that something is wrong with
one of the women of the household. Rioe is deposited under the
tree, and on the next day a panoh&yat is called, before which all the
women are summoned and a handful of rioe is given to eaoh to ohew.
She who fails to mastioate her portion is held guilty of unchastity,
and if married is at once turned out of the house. If it is an

unmarried girl who breaks down in the chewing ordeal, she is called
upon to disclose the name of her paramour, so that arrangements
may be made to get her married at once.

The religion of the Mech, like that of the Dhim&l, is still in
an early stage of transition from animism to
Rehglon * Hinduism. They describe themselves as Hin-

dus of the Saiva seot, and worship Siva under the name of Batho,
and his consort K&li as Bali Khungri. To the former the AgniA-
Mech sacrifice buffaloes, goats, and pigeons ; while his wife has to put
up with the less respectable offerings of pigs, fowls, and goats, whioh
the J&ti-Meoh offer indifferently to either. The J&ti-Meoh also
reverence as a household goddess (ghar-devi), a nameless personage,
supposed to be the mother of Siva, who is represented by a lump of
sun-dried clay set in the comer of the ohief room. Pigs, fowls,
plantains and parohed rioe are offered to her on any day in the week
except Sunday, Tuesday, or Wednesday. Among their other deities
may be mentioned Tsimising, Tista Burhi (Buchanan’s ‘ old lady of
the Tista’), Mahesh Th&kur, Sonnisi and MahdkAl. They have no
Brahmans, and priests (dhdmi or eg ha) chosen from among the tribe to
serve them for religious and ceremonial purposes.

Those who can afford a funeral pyre prefer to bum the dead,
while the poorer members of the tribe bury,
Dupoe&i e placing the oorpse faoe upwards with the bead

pointing towards the south. In the latter oase a small fire is kindled

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MECH.

upon the grave, in whioh food and drink are burned for the benefit of
the deoeased. The Agnid-Meoh perform a meagre propitiatory rite
on the eighth day, and the J4ti-Meoh on the fourth day, after death.
With both the important part of the proceedings is the feast which is
given to the friends and relatives of the deoeased. Some repeat the
ceremony every year after the manner of the Hindus, but this is
unusual.

Judged by the Hindu standard, the sooial status of the Mech is
extremely low. Both R&jbansis and Dhim&ls
look down upon them; and they themselves,
while claiming higher rank than Garos, Lepohas, and Tibetans, admit
the social superiority of the R&jbansis. Dhim^ls they appear to look
upon as standing on muoh the same level as themselves, though the
former profess to be stricter in matters of food and drink, and
strenuously disclaim kinship and social intercourse with the Mech.
They eat pork, fowls, all kinds of fish, lizards, and the impAu silk-
worm, but abstain from beef, the flesh of the long- tailed sheep,
snakes, field-rats, and the leavings of other people. Buffalo flesh
now ranks as beef, at any rate with the Agnid-Meoh ; but this
seems to be a comparatively modem reform, for some Mech are said
to eat buffalo flesh, and those who do not seem to pride themselves on
their asoetioism. Spirituous liquors are indulged in without stint.

A curious story is told in the Terai to account for the fact that
the Nepalese will take water from the hands of the Mech. It is said
that some twenty years ago Jang Bahadur, then Prime Minister of
Nepal, while shooting in the Terai, fell in love with a Mech girl, the
daughter of Ujir Singh Jamadar, of Dhul&b&ri, and took her with
him to Nep&l as his mistress. As the prioe of her person, and in
accordance with the wishes of the tribe, he issued an edict that in
future no subject of Nepal should refuse to take water from a Mech,
or, as my informant adds, from a Dhim&l also. I am unable to say
what amount of truth there may be in this tale, but if such an edict
were ever actually published, it can hardly have done more than
recognize and confirm a practice already existing. Even J ang Baha-
dur's despotio power must have yielded to popular prejudice if the
Nepalese had really deemed the Mech unclean. The fact, however,
seems to be that there is a considerable strain of Nepalese blood
among the Mech, and other facts may be mentioned which go to
confirm this view. Like the Nepalese, for example, the Mech
have much greater liberty in matters of food before marriage than
after, so that an unmarried man may take rice from people who are
not deemed pure enough to give food to a married man. Both observe
the Tihar festival ; both oall the bride-price sodhd or theka. These
coincidences may of course be due merely to that transfusion of
oustom whioh is everywhere observable ; but taking all the circum-
stances into consideration, I think it more likely that they have
arisen from intermixture of the two races.

Husbandry by the jhbm method is regarded by the Mech as
their original occupation, but of late years many
ccupa ion. h ave taken to settled cultivation as raiyats of
jots in the Terai. The rearing of the imphu silkworm, which spins

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MECH.

MENDBT7.

the silk used in the chequered cloths worn by the Meoh, was at
one time a regular industry, but has fallen off notably within the last
generation.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of
the Mech tribe in 1872 and 1881

District.

Bogra
Rangpur
Darjiling
Jalpigori
Kuch Behar

Mech a ri i a sept of Tdntis in
Chota Nagpur.

Mechi 9 a synonym for Mech.

Mecho, a hyper gam ous group
of Kaibarttas in Jessore.

Medari 9 a gain of the
Sdbama gotra of Bdrendra Brah-
mans in Bengal.

Meghalbari&rpur, a mul or
section of the Naomulid or Maj-
raut sub-caste of Groalas in Behar.

Meghi, a thar or sept of Gur-
ungs in Darjiling.

Mehalo, a title of Dorns in
Behar.

Meh&us, a section of the Sdt-
mulid Maghayd sub-caste of Kdn-
dus in Behar.

Mehdipur Mohdia, a mul or
section of the Naomulid or Maj-
raut sub-caste of Godlds in Behar.

Meheden, a section of the
Bdrajdti sub-caste of Khatris in
Bengal.

Meher&, a section of the
Charjdti sub-caste of Khatris in
Bengal.

Mehm&npur, a mul or section
of the Naomulid or Majraut sub-
caste of Godlds in Behar.

Mehos, a mul or section of the
Maghayd sub-caste of Kdndus in
Behar.

1872. 1881.

6,836

893 1,063

40 8,760

224

Mehrfi, a sept of Rdjputs in
Behar.

Mehran, a seotion of Sunris in
Behar.

Mehrdna, a title of the Tir-
hutia sub-caste of Kumhdrs in
Behar.

Mehri, a sept of Rdjputs in
Behar.

Mehtar, Military a sub-caste of
Haris who remove night-soil.

Mehtar, a section of Maghayd
Kumhdrs; a title of Nunids,
of the Dhusia and Dohar sub-
castes of Chamdrs ; a section
of the Kiilsiinri sub-caste of
Sunris and of the Dharkdr sub-
caste of Doms in Behar.

Mehtaria, a section of Mag-
hayd Dhobis in Behar; also a
title of Chamdrs.

Mekchan, a section of Mur-
mis in Darjiling.

Mekhun, a dugu or seotion of
the Kochh-Mandai in Dacca.
The name indicates the original
habitat of the group, probably
a hill or village in Assam, and at
the present day has no bearing
upon marriage.

Memophagpa, a sept of the
Chaibisa sub- tribe of Limbus in
Darjiling.

Mendru, a sept of Rdjputs in
Behar.

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MENG.

MI8B.

Meng, a thar or sept of Man-
gars in Darjiling.

Mengi, a thar or sept of
Chirungs in Darjiling.

Menw&r, a section of Bh&ts in
Behar.

Menyangbo, the unsuccessful
one, a eept of the Yangorup sub-
tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Meongba, a sub -sept of the
Thekim sept of Limbus in Dar-
jiling.

Mephagpa, the butcher, liter-
ally pig-roaster, a sept of the
P&nthar sub-tribe of Limbus in
Darjiling.

Mert, a sept of Bhuiy&s in
Chota Nagpur.

Mesha, sheep, a title of T&ntis
in Bengal.

Mesh-r&si, a section of Milos
in Eastern Bengal.

Mete, a title of Kaibarttas in
Bengal.

Methi, a section of Os w41s in
Behar.

Methua , a synonym for Dh&n-
gar in Chota Nagpur.

Mewakhola or Terothar, a
sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Mihtar, a sub-caste of Telis in
Behar.

Millak, a seotion of Mahesris
in Behar.

Millong, a sept of the Tung-
jainya sub-tribe of Chakmis in
the Hill Tracts of Chittagong.

M in, sal fish, a totemistic
section of the Kumhir caste in
Manbhum ; a section of Jugis in
Bengal.

Mi nag-pi, a rui or sept of
Sherpa Bhotias of Nepal,

Mind, a sept of Mundas in
Chota Nagpur.

Minj, a snake, the totem of a
seotion of Oraon-Dhdngars set-
tled for several generations in
Behar.

Minji, eel, a totemistic sept of
Oraons in Chota Nagpur.

Mir or Mair, a sub-caste of
Sonars in Behar.

Mirchaii, a section of the
Baranwar sub-caste of Baniyas
in Behar.

Mirchw&n, a section of Sonirs
in Behar.

Mird&ha, a section of the
Kadar caste in Behar which
intermarries with the Darbe,
Man j hi, Kampti, and B&re sec-
tions, but not with the rest;
a section and a title of Maghaya
Dorns; a title of men of the
Turi and Dosadh castes who fol-
low the profession of hawkers or
falooners ; a title of Binjhiasand
Khandaits in Chota Nagpur.

Miridsin, a class of Mahom-
edan musicians in Behar who
also deal in and apply leeches.

Mi rich bhusait, a mul or
section of the Ayodhiab&si sub-
caste of Sondrs in Behar.

Mirshikdr, a chief huntsman ;
a low class of Mahomedans who
live by snaring birds.

Mising, a sept of Tipperahs
in the Hill Traots of Chittagoug.

Misir, a section of the Sri-
bdstab sub-caste of K&yasths in
Behar.

Misr or Misra, a title of Gaura,
Maithil, KanaujiA, and S&raswat

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MISR.

MOIRA.

Brahmans and of Bdbhans in
Behar.

Misra, a title of the Ddkshi-
ndtya JBaidik Brahmans in
Bengal ; a thar of the Atri gotra
of Nepdli Brahmans ; a section
of Gaura Brahmans in Behar ;
a section of Utkal or Orissa
Brahmans.

Mi*tri , a synonym for Barai,
Karanga, and Dhobi in Behar.

Mistri, a carpenter or mason,
Occ. A title of Barhis, Kanaujid
Lohdrs, and of Kdmdrs in Behar ;
a title of Sutradhars, Chdsddho-
bas, Dhobas, and Pods in
Bengal.

Mithan» a section of Agar-
wdls in Behar.

Mithorid, a section of Maj-
raut Godlds in Behar.

Mitra, a title of Kdyasths and
Bdruis in Bengal.

Mitraseni Behard, a sub-caste
of Bhuinmdlis in Bengal.

*Mittal| a gotra or section of
Agarwdls in Behar.

Modli» a gdin of the Kdsyapa
gotra of Barendra Brahmans in
Bengal.

Mobrishya, a section of
Sdnkhdris in Bengal.

Mochhdre f a sept of the
Agnia sub-tribe of Meches in the
Darjiling Terai.

Mochi, a title of Jaunpuri
Chamdrs who make shoes ; also a
title of Dhusia Chamars in
Behar.

Mochidn» a mul or section of
the Kanaujia sub-caste of Sondrs
in Behar.

Modak , a synonym for Mayard.

Moddsi, a group of the Rdj-
bansi sub-caste of Kochhs in
Northern Bengal.

Modgalya, a section of Gan-
dhabaniks in Bengal.

Modhdgrdmi, a gdin of the
Kdsyapa gotra of Bdrendra
Baahmans in Bengal.

Mod i f a title of Baniyds,
Halwdis, Kalwars, Koras, and
Sunris in Behar.

Mogalkdchd, a mul or section
of the Naomulia or Majraut sub-
caste of Godlas in Behar.

Mogha, a title of men who
dress as females and earn their
living by dancing and singing.

Moghalid, a seotion of the
Dhusid sub-caste of Chamdrs.

Mohali, a sub-caste of Dorns
in Behar. The similarity of
name suggests a connection
with the mat and basket-making
caste of Mahili in Western
Bengal.

Mohan i, a title of Gonrhis in
Behar.

Mohdr, a mul or section of
the Chhamulid Madhesia sub-
caste of Halwdis in Behar.

Mohara, a thar or sept of
Damis in Darjiling whose chief
profession is sewing.

Mohbaita, a section of the
Paohainy* sub-caste of Dorns in
Behar.

Mohdiar, a seotion of Ghdsis
in Ohota Nagpur.

Moira, a synonym for Mayard.

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MOKTAN.

MBUNG.

Mokt&n, a seotion of Munnis
in Darjiling.

Mold, a sub-caste of Bduris in
Western Bengal.

Mold, a section of Doms in
Western Bengal.

Mol&n, a section of Godlds in
the North-Western Provinces
and Behar.

Moldhid, a section of Go&l&s
in the North-Western Provinces
and Behar.

Moldiar, a section of B&bhans
in Behar.

Molima, Molima-Sege, a
sept of Chakmds in the Hill
Tracts of Chittagong.

Molo, a sub-caste of Koris in
Western Bengal.

Momin, ‘faithful’; a synonym
for Musalmdn ; a designation of
Mahomedan Jolahas which dis-
tinguishes them from the Hindu
Jolahas.

Mon , a synonym for Lepoha.

Mongar, a section of Godlds in
Behar.

Mongbai, a sept of Tipperahs
in the Hill Tracts of Chittagong.

Monghyr, a dih or local seo-
tion of the Maghayd sub-caste
of Telis in Behar. The system
of exogamy among this sub-caste
of Telis seems, however, either to
be dying out or to be of recent
introduction, for some of the
Maghayds say they have no dihs>
but merely prohibit marriage
within nine j pirhis or degrees of
relationship.

Mongld f a sept of the Tung-
jainya sub-tribe of Chakm&s in
the Hill Traots of Chittagong.

Mongri, thorny fish, a totem-
istic sept of Pins in Chota
Nagpur.

Mongtupo, a sept of the
Yangorup sub-tribe of Limbus in
Darjiling.

Monmatar y Motia y Motari (from
moty B.y i a burthen ’) a porter, a
carrier of burthens, and generally
a day-labourer employed other-
wise than in agriculture.

Mor, peacock, a totemistic
section of Khandiits in Orissa
and Chota Nagpur.

Mormu, deer, a totemistic sept
of Lohirs in Chota Nagpur.

Morpachi, a sept of Goilis in
in Chota Nagpur.

Moti, a sept of Gonds in Chota
Nagpur.

Motiom&n, a sept of Kaurs in
Chota Nagpur. «

Motli&i a section of Goilis in
the North-Western Provinces and
Behar.

Motrihd, a section of the Bano-
dhii and Jaiswir Kalwirs in
Behar.

Mo-u, a sept of the Tung-
jainya sub-tribe of Chakmis in
the Hill Tracts of Chittagong.

Mowar, a section of B&bhans
in Behar.

Mowlf a sept of Mundas in
Chota Nagpur.

Mradha, a title of Hiris in
Bengal.

Mridha, the head of the
menial servants in a zamind&r’s
establishment.

Mrung 9 a synonym for
Tipperah.

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MUCHI.

Jjftttdtt, Rishi , 1 the leather-dressing and cobbler caste of Bengal,
by origin doubtless a branoh of the Cham&rs, though its members
now repudiate that name and claim to be a distinct caste of
somewhat higher sooial position. Mr. Nesfield observes that “the
industry of tanning is preparatory to, and lower than that of
cobblery : and hence * * * * the caste of Cham&r r anks

decidedly below that of Muohi. The ordinary Hindu does not
consider the touoh of a Muchi so impure as that of a Cham dr
and there is a Hindu proverb to the effeot that ‘dried or prepared
hide is the same thing as cloth,’ whereas the touoh of the raw hide
before it has been tanned by the Chamdr is considered a pollution.
The Muchi does not eat carrion like the Chamdr, nor does he eat
swine’s flesh ; nor does his wife over praotise the much-loathed art of
midwifery. He makes the shoes, leather aprons, leather buckets,
harness, portmanteaux, eto., used by the people of India. As a rule
he is much better off than the Cham&r, and this eircumstanoe has
helped amongst others to raise him in the social scale.” It may be
gathered from this description that in the North-West Provinces
the Muchi never dresses freshly-skinned hides, but confines himself
to working up leather already tanned by the Chamdr. This distinc-
tion does not appear to be so sharply drawn in Bengal, where
Muchis tan hides like the Chamdrs, but will only cure those of the
cow, goat, buffalo, and deer.

The origin of the Muohi caste is given in the following legend,
Traditions of origin. related to Dr. Wise by one of their Brahmans,
, . afterwards reported to me substantially in

the same form from an independent source:— One of the Praid-pati
or mind-born sons of Brahmd, was in the habit of providing the flesh of
cows and clarified butter as a burnt offering (Ahuti) to the gods. It
was then the custom to eat a portion of the sacrifice, restore the viotim
to life, and drive it into the forest. On one oocasion the Praj d-pati
failed to resuscitate the sacrificial animal, owing to his wife, who was
pregnant at the time, having clandestinely made away with a
portion. Alarmed at this he summoned all the other Prajd-patis,
and they sought by divination to discover the cause of the failure
At last they ascertained what had occurred, and as a punishment the
■wife was cursed and expelled from their society. The child which
she bore was the first Muchi, or tanner, and from that time forth
mankind being deprived of the power of reanimating cattle slaugh-
tered for food, the pious abandoned the practice of IrilW kine
altogether. Another story is that Muchirdm, the ancestor of the
caste, was born from the sweat of Brahmd while dancing He
chanced to offend the irritable sage Durvdsa, who sent a pretty

■Pa 8 ! net with a tribe of fishermen ia Puraniya called Eishi, and
considered them to be an aboriginal tribe of Mithila. Bishi, however is
often used as a pseudonym to hide the real paternity of a caste: thus ’the
Musahar often calls himself “ Bishi-bdlaka,” or son of a Bishi, and the
Bengali Chamir toes to pass incognito as a Eishi. In the case of the Mdsahar
it is possible that Eishi may be Eikhi or Bikh-Mun, the bear, one of the
ongmaltotems of the Bhuiya or Musahar tribe, and the same may hold good
for the ChanddL This explanation, however, is mainly conjectural 8

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MUCHI.

Brahman widow to allure him into a breach of chastity. Muohirdm
accosted the widow as mother, and refused to have anything to do
with her ; but Durvdsa used the miraculous powers he had aoquired
by penanoe to render the widow pregnant, so that the innocent
Muohir&m was made an outoaste on suspicion. From the widow’s
twin sons Bara R&m and (Jhhota Ram descended the Bar&-bh4giy4
and Chhota-bhigiy^ sub-castes, which are the two main divisions
of Muohis at the present day. The Chhota-Bhigiyi deal in hides,
aot as musioians, and do various kinds of leather work ; while the
Bar£-bhagiy6 profess to be only cultivators. The latter are again
divided into Uttar-Fterhi and Dakin-Rdrhhi, who do not intermarry
or eat together. The other sub-castes, Ch&s£-Kurur or Chasa-
Kolai, are agriculturists; the Betu& make cane baskets and also
cultivate; the Jugi-Muchi or Kor& weave ooarse cloth of ootton,
often mixed with silk ; the Tik^kar Konai, who make the did or
charcoal balls used for lighting pipes; and the Bait&l, Kurur, M&la
bhumid, Sabark&r«i, and Shnki, are shoemakers, cobblers, and
curriers. Muchis have only two sections, Kisyapa and Sindilya,
which have been borrowed from the Brahmanical system, and has no
bearing upon the prevention of iutermarriage between near relatives.

They follow the ordinary rules as to prohibited
Marriage. degrees, and permit the marriage of two sisters

to the same man, provided that the younger is not married first
Both infant and adult-marriage are reoogmzed for girls, but the
former practice is deemed the more respectable, and is resorted
to in the large majority of cases. In the Daooa district a father
generally reoeives from fifty to sixty rupees for his daughter, from
which it may be inferred that the oustom of polygamy has tended
on the whole towards the preponderance of males in the caste. In
other districts, however, the bride -price is not so high, and m rabna
it is said to vary from Rs. 5 to Rs. 25-4, aooording to the means of
the bridegroom. The marriage ceremony is a simplified form of
that in use among the higher Hindu castes ; smdurddn, or according
to some the burning of khai or parohed paddy before the bride and
bridegroom, being the binding portion. The bride is dressed m red
garments. In former years, says Dr. Wise, the marriage ceremonies
of the Rishi were scenes of debauohery and intemperance, but of late
intoxicating liquors have been prohibited until all the regular forms
have been observed. Even Hindus, who rarely have anything
favourable to say of the Rishi, oonfess that now-a-days, owing to
some unknown cause, both the Chamdrs and Rishis have become
more temperate and more attentive to their religious duties than
formerly Polygamy is permitted with no restriction on the
number of wives, except the man’s ability to maintain them and
their children. Divorce is permitted on the ground of adultery.
Usually the panoh&yat of the caste are called together by their
president (pardmdnik or moiali) to give their sanction to the
proceedings ; and if this is not done at the mstance of the husband,
the wife has a right to appeal to the panch&yat. With the permission
of that body divorced wives may marry again by -the sanya or nika
form. Widows also may marry a seoond tune by this ntual, the

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MUCHI.

binding portion of whioh oonsists of exohanging garlands made of
the flowers of the tulsi ( Ocymum sanctum ). Here also the sanotion
of the panohdyat is required, and a feast is given to the members.
A small sum, varying from Re. 1 to Rs. 5, is paid as pan . Indica-
tions are not wanting that the opinion of the caste tends to condemn
widow-marriage, and that the custom may be expected to die out
within a generation or two unless some special influence is brought
to bear in its favour. Already some Muohis hold that only virgin
widows can properly marry again, and that the remarriage of
a full-grown woman who has already lived with her husband is
little better than oonoubinage. The children of sanga marriages
are deemed to be in some sense degraded, and, if males, have to
pay a heavy fine before they oan obtain wives. Like Bauris and
iBdgdis, the Muohis admit iuto their community members of any
caste higher than their own. The new member is required to give
a feast to the caste panohdyat, and to eat with them in token of fellow-
ship. Instances of men of other castes thus becoming Muohis are
rare, and occur only when a man has been turned out of his own
caste for having intercourse with a Muohi woman and taking food
from her hands.

The majority of the caste are believed to belong to the Saiva
. sect, but a large proportion of the Betu& sub-

lglon * caste are Vaishnavas. They imitate the Sudras

in most of their religious ceremonies, while others peculiar to
themselves resemble those of the Chamdrs. Though regarded as
utterly vile, they are permitted to make offerings at the shrines of
Kali, whioh a Jugi is not allowed to do. They keep many Hindu
festivals, the chief being that in honour of Viswakarmd on the last
day of Bh&dra. When small-pox prevails they offer a pie 1 to Sitald,
first of all smearing the animars snout with red lead and repeating
certain inoantations, after which it is set free, and any one oan seize
it. .Like the Chamdr, Dhobd, Dosadh, and other low castes, the
Muchis worship Jalka Dovi whenever cholera or other epidemio
disease breaks out. The Muchi women, however, only colleot con-
tributions in their own quarter, and wear the wreath of plantain,
date-palm, or bend ( Andropogon mnncatu*) for two and a half days
instead of for six, as is the custom of the Chamdrs. Muohirdm Dds,
the reputed ancestor of the caste, and Rui Dds, are also popular
objeots of worship.

A Brahman was bestowed on the Bard-bhdgiyd Muohis by
Priest* Balldl Sen, and the story goes that in the

palace of that monaroh a certain Brahman,
having made himself especially troublesome by insisting upon being
appointed as priest to one of the newly-formed castes, had it intimated
to him by the Raja that he would belong to the oaste which should
first appear to him in the morning. There was also a Muohi, a
celebrated player on the naqarah , or kettledrum, whose duty it was
to sound the reveille. It was easily arranged that the Brahman
should first oast his eyes on him when he awoke, and his descendants
have ever since ministered to this despised race. They rank among
the lowest of the Bama- Brahmans, and neither members of the

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sacred order nor men belonging to the A'charani castes will take
water from their hands. The Chhota-bh6giy£ have priests of their
own. Muohis bum their dead and perform srdddh on the thirtieth
day after death. In the case of men who have died a violent death
there is no srdddh , but a prdyaschitta, or expiatory ceremony, is
performed.

The Chhota-bhagiyfi and Betui sub-castes, like the Chand&ls,
observe ten days of impurity and oelebrate the srdddh on the
eleventh.

The social position of Muohis is, as has been intimated above,
r • i * perhaps a shade higher than that of Chamirs,

oem hut this is not saying much, and both castes

may properly be placed in one class at the bottom of the scale of

preoedenoe recognized by the average Hindu. None of the regular
village servants will defile himself by working for a Muchi, and thus
the caste has been compelled to provide itself with barbers and
washermen from among its own members. Illegitimate children are
usually brought up to these professions, and wherever the community
is a large one no inoonvenience is felt. Their rules regarding diet
are in keeping with their standing in society. The Chhota-bhagiyd
sub-caste eat beef, as the Chamars do ; are very partial to chickens,

and regard pork as a delioaoy. The Bara-bhagiyd, Betud, and
Chdsd-kolai abstain from beef and pork, but not from fowls; and
they are far less particular than the higher castes as to the kinds of
fish whioh they eat. Like the Cham&rs, all Muohis are great spirit-
drinkers, and notorious for their indulgence in the more dangerous
vice of g^nja-smoking. No other caste will eat food prepared by
a Muchi, but Dorns will take water from their hands and will

smoke from the same hookah.

Muohis work as tanners, shoe-makers, saddlers, musioians, and

Occupation.

basket-makers. Their mode of preparing skins
is as follows: — The raw hide is rubbed, and

then soaked for fifteen to twenty days in a strong solution of lime.
It is then deprived of its hair and of any fat that remains, and
steeped for six days in aoid tamarind juice. Finally, it is put in
a vat containing a solution of lac and pounded babul {Acacia), garan
( Ceriops JRoxburghianus ), and sundari (Heritiera minor) barks, the
hide being after this immersion regarded as properly oured. .

The town Muchis buy hides from their brethren resident in those
parts of the country where cattle abound. The village Muchis of the
Chhota-bMgiya sub-caste, while they pride themselves on not skin-
ning the carcasses of their own cattle, row up and down the rivers
in their neighbourhood in search of carcasses, and when epidemio
diseases attack the herds they find so much to do that the villagers
attribute the spread of the disease to them. It is doubtless often
the oase that they puncture a healthy oow with an Acacia thorn
impregnated with virus, but they are rarely, if ever, detected at this
villainous trade. The people, however, firmly believe that they
increase their profits in this way. In Western Bengal and Chota
Nagpur, where the sal jungles form the chief pasturing grounds,
Muchis destroy cattle with arsenio rolled up in a bundle of mahud

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MUCHI.

petals. These are a favourite food for oows, and can be strewn on the
ground without rousing any suspicion.

The Muchi will not touoh a oorpse, but will skin the carcass
of a dead animal. The skin of the buffalo sacrificed at the
Durga Puja is their perquisite, and the skinning of the animal often
gives rise to bitter quarrels between rival families.

Most Muchis make shoes, but of inferior quality to those
manufactured by the Cham&rs. The Betua sub-caste are famous
for making baskets with rattan ( Calamus rotang), which natives
assert are so closely woven that they will hold water. They also
collect the roots of the dub grass (Panicum), and manufacture the
brush (manjan) used by weavers for starching the warp. In some
parts the Muchi castrates bull calves, but this they stoutly deny.
Others, again, work as sweepers and remove night-soil, but those
who do so are exoluded from intermarriage with the rest of the
caste, and appear to be on the way to form a sub-caste of their
own.

The tabld-wdla, or drum-maker, is always a Muohi. Goats 1
skins are used for the oovering, while cows* hides supply the strings
for tightening the parchment. On every native drum, at one or
both ends, black circles (khiran) are painted to improve the pitch.
The Muohi prepares a paste of iron filings and rice, with which
he stains the parchment. At all Hindu weddings they are employed
as musicians, and engaged in bands, as among Muhamadans.
Their favourite instruments are drums of various shapes and sizes,
the violin, and the pipe.

The female Muohi differs from the Ohamdfn in never acting as
a midwife, in wearing shell bracelets instead of huge ones of bell-
metal, and in never appearing as a professional singer.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of
Muchis in 1881, the figures for 1872 having been included with
those of Cham&rs : —

District.

1881.

District.

1881.

Bardwan ...

48,684

Darjiling

Bankers

9,094

Dacca ...

411

Birbhum ...

26,716

Faridpur ...

3,836 .

Midn&pur ...

11,854

Bakarganj ...

1,647

Hnghli ...

10,909

Maimansinh

6,902

Howrah

3,517

Tipperah

2,613

24-Pargan&8

24,814

Chittagong

684

Nadiya

34,068

Noakhali

221

Khulna

41,147

Maldah

2,883

Jessore

22,347

Saat&l Parganas

6,661

Murshedabad

10.076

Cuttack

862

Dinajpur ...

8,306

Puri

Bajshahye ...

2,796

Balaosre

249

Bangpur ...

2.834

Tributary States

671

Bogra

1,908

Singbhum

677

Pabna

4,899

Manbhum

7,307

9 *

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MUKBUAB.

Much i rim Dds, a title of
Muchifl in Bengal.

Muddapuriii a section of the
KamAr sub-caste of DosAdhs in
Behar.

Mudgal, a section of Karans
in Orissa.

Mudgul, a section of the
Srotriya sub-caste of TJtkal
Brahmans.

Mudi, petty shop-keepers sell-
ing rice, daly sugar, etc. ; a
title of Binds and BAgdis; a
synonym for KorA, professional
diggers and excavators ; a title
of bullock-drivers engaged in
trade ; a section of Oraons whose
chief profession is earthwork.
They also carry palanquins and
cultivate land.

Mudi r, frog, a totemistio section
of JagannAthi KumhArs in Orissa.

Mudu, a sept of TAntis in
Chota Nagpur.

Muduk, a sept of Mundas in
Chota Nagpur.

Muduli, a title of ChAsAs in
Orissa.

Mugrish, a section of KhyAns
in Northern Bengal.

Muharrir, Mohan, a vernacular
writer, a clerk who either does
not know English or is employed
in a post which requires no
knowledge of English.

Muhkim, supervisor, a title
of TAntis in Bengal.

Mujaimiya, a kul or section
of BAbhans in Behar.

Mujaniar, a sept of Korwas
in Chota Nagpur.

Mujganji-Par^rnAnik, a sub-
caste of NApits in the 24-Par-

Mujgarni, a group of the
DaspArA sub-caste of KumhArs
in Pabna.

Mujni, a section of Koiris in
Behar.

Mujnid, a section of the BiyA-
hut and KharidAhA KalwArs in
Behar.

MukdranchhA, a that or sept
of Khambus in Darjiling.

MukariA, a section of the
DhaprA sub-caste of Dorns in
Behar.

Mukei'i, a person employed in
grinding wheat-flour.

Mukhi a section of MaghaiyA
KumhArs in Behar.

Mukhaiti, a gdin of the
BharadwAja gotra of RArhi
Brahmans in Bengal.

Mukhi, a section of Gb&sis in
Chota Nagpur : henoe Mukhiain ,
an opprobrious term applied to
women of the GhAsi and other
low castes from their quarrel-
some habits.

Mukhi A, a mul or section of
the Ghosin sub-caste of GoAlAs in
Behar; a section of Kewats;
a title of Binds and Kurmis in
Behar; a title of Khambus in
Daijiling.

Mukhi Ar, a title of Tiors and
of the Chab sub-caste of Gonrhis
in Behar.

Mukhiy&f a section of the
JAthot division of the Parbotti-
Kurin sub-caste of Gonrhis in
Behar.

Mukhya-Kulin, a hypergam-
ous group of RArhi Brahmans
in Bengal.

Mukmed, a section of the
MaghayA sub-caste of Barhis in
Behar.

Mukrudr, spider, a sept of
Asuras in Chota Nagpur.

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MUNDA.

Mulcting, a section of Murmis
in Darjiling.

Mukta-sil, a title of barbers
in Eastern Bengal.

Mukund, a section of Barhis
in Behar.

Mul, a g din of the Kdsyapa
gotra of RArhi Brahmans in
Bengal; a sept of TAntis in
Chota Nagpur.

Mula, a group of the BArendra
GoAlAs in Bengal.

MulhatiA, a section of the
Kasarwdni sub-caste of Baniyds
in Behar.

Mulki, a sub-tribe of Rajputs
in Western Bengal.

MulmahAli, a section of the
Biyahut and KharidAbA KalwArs
in Behar.

Mulukjuri, a gdin or sub-
section of Saptasati Brahmans in
Bengal.

Mulukuas, a thar or sept of
Khambus in Darjiling.

ffiVLTtbti,, Mura> Horo-hon, a large Dravidian tribe of Chota
Qris , n Nagpur classed on linguistic grounds as

° ngin * Kolarian, and olosely akin to the Hos and

SantAls, and probably also to the Kandhs. The name Munda is of
Sanskrit origin. It means headman of a village, and is a titular or
functional designation used by the members of the tribe, as well as
by outsiders, as a distinctive name much in the same way as the
SantAls call themselves MAnjhi, the Bhumij SardAr, and theKhambu
of the Darjiling hills JimdAr. The general name Kol, which is
applied to both Mundas and Oraons, is interpreted by Herr Jellinghaus
to mean pig-killer, but the better opinion seems to be that it is
a variant of horo, the MundAri for man. The change of r to l is
familiar and needs no illustration, while in explanation of the conver-
sion of h into A, we may cite hon 9 the MundAri for ‘ohild,’ which in
Korwa becomes kon and koro 9 the MuAsi form of horo 9 ‘ a man.’ It
may be added that the Kharias of Chota Nagpur oall the Mundas
Kora, a name closely approaching Kol.

The Munda myth of the making of mankind tells how the self-
Traditum. existent primeval deities Ote BorAm and Sing

^ Bonga created a boy and a girl and put them

together in a cave to people the world. At first they were too
innocent to understand what was expected of them, but the gods
showed them how to make rice-beer, which inflames the passions, and
in oourse of time their family reached the respectable number of
twelve of either sex. As is usual in myths of this class, the children
were divided into pairs ; and Sing Bonga set before them various
kinds of food for them to ohoose from before starting in the world.
The fate of their descendants depended on their ohoioe. Thus “ the
first and second pair took bullocks’ and buffaloes’ flesh, and they
originated the Kols (Hos) and the Bhumij (Matkum) ; the next took
of the vegetables only, and are the progenitors of the Brahmans and
Chhatries; others took goats and fish, and from them are the Sudras.
One pair took shell-fish and became BhuiyAs; two pairs took
pigs and beoame SantAls. One pair got nothing, seeing which the
first pairs gave them of their superfluity, and from the pair thus

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102

provided spring the Ghasis, who toil not, but live by preying on
others.” 1

The Mundas are divided into thirteen sub-tribes, several of which,
such as Kharia- Munda, Mahili-Munda, Oraon-
rwotirn Munda, appear to be the result of orosses with
neighbouring tribes, while others again, like BhuinhAr-Munda and
M&nki-Munda, have reference to the land and oommunal system of
the tribe. The Mahili-Munda sub-tribe has the pig for its totem,
and for them pork is tabooed. But appetite has proved stronger
than tradition, and the taboo is satisfied by throwing away the head
of the animal, the rest of the carcase being deemed lawful food.
The septs or kilts, whioh are very numerous, are mainly totemistio,
and the totem is taboo to the members of the sept whioh bears its
name. A list of the septs is given in Appendix I. If it were possible
to identify them all, and to ascertain precisely to what extent and in
what manner the taboo of the totem is observed by each, the inform-
ation would probably throw much light upon the growth of early
tribal societies.

A Munda may not marry a woman of his own sept. The
sept-name goes by the father’s side, and inter-
age * marriage with persons nearly related through

the mother is guarded against by reckoning prohibited degrees in the
manner common in Behar. Adult marriage is still in fashion, and
sexual intercourse before marriage is tacitly recognized, but in all
respectable families matches are made by the parents, and the parties
themselves have verv little to say in the matter. The bride-prioe
varies from Re. 4 to Its. 20. Sindurddn , or the smearing of vermilion
on the bride’s forehead by the bridegroom and on the bridegroom’s
forehead by the bride, is the essential and binding portion. The
praotioe described by Colonel Dalton of marrying the bride to a
mahud tree and the bridegroom to a mango seems now to have been
abandoned. Traoes still survive among the Mundas of a form of
marriage, resembling the Sant&li nir bolok . It is called dhuko era ,
meaning a bride who has entered the household of her own acoord.
The ohildren of a woman thus married seem to have an inferior
status in respect of their rights to inherit the landed property of
their father. The late Babu RAkhfl D&s EUld&r, Manager of the
estate of the Mahar4j& of Chota N&gpur, gave me an illustration of
this faot. Some years ago the munda or headman of one of the
villages of the Government estate of Barkagarh died, leaving an only
son by a dhuko era wife, and a question was raised as to the latter’s
right to succeed. Under Colonel Dalton’s orders, a number of
headmen of villages were oalled together, and their opinions were
taken. No decided results, however, oould be arrived at. Some
thought the son should get the whole property. Others proposed to
exolude him altogether, and a third party considered him entitled
to maintenance. Eventually the question was compromised by
admitting the son’s right to one-fourth of the land and the whole of
the personal property. The case is a curious comment on the

1 Dalton, Ethmlogy , p. 186.

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MUNDA.

uncertainty of tribal custom. Widows may marry again by the
ritual known as sagai, in which sindurdan is performed with the left
hand. Divorce is allowed at the instance of either party, and divorced
women are permitted to marry again. In oases of adultery the
seducer is required to pay to the husband the full amount of the
bride-price.

At the head of the Munda religion stands Sing-Bonga, the
sun, a benefioent but somewhat inaotive deity,
eiigion. who conoems himself but little with human

affairs, and leaves the details of the executive government of the
world to the gods in charge of particular branches or departments
of nature. Nevertheless, although Sing-Bonga himself does not
send sickness or calamity to men, he may be invoked to avert
such disasters, and in this view sacrifices of white goats or white
cocks are offered to him by way of appeal from the unjust punish-
ments believed to have been inflioted by his subordinates. Next
in rank to Sing-Bonga comes Buru-Bonga or Marang-Buru, also
known as P&t-Sarn&, a mountain god, whose visible habitation
is usually supposed to be the highest or most remarkable hill
or rook in the neighbourhood. “ In Ohota N&gpur,” says Colonel
Dalton , 1 “ a remarkable bluff, near the village of Lodhma, is
the Marang-Buru or Maha-Buru for a wide expanse of country.
Here people of all oastes assemble and sacrifice— Hindus, even
Mahomedans, as well as Kols. There is no visible object of worship;
the sacrifices are offered on the top of the hill, a bare semi-globular
mass of rook. If animals are killed, the heads are left there, and
afterwards appropriated by the p&han or village priest.” Marang-
Buru is regarded as the god who presides over the rainfall, and is
appealed to in times of drought, as well as when any epidemic
siokness is abroad. The appropriate offering to him is a buffalo.
Ikir Bonga rules over tanks, wells and large sheets of water; Garh£-
era is the goddess of rivers, streams and the small springs whioh occur
on many hill sides in Chota N&gpur; while Nage or N&ga-era is a
general name applied to the minor deities or spirits who haunt the
swampy lower levels of the terraced rice-fields. All of these are
believed to have a hand in spreading disease among men, and require
oonstant propitiation to keep them out of mischief. White goats
and black or brown cooks are offered to Ikir Bonga, and eggs and
turmeric to the Nage. Desw&li or KAr&-Sam& is the god of the
village who lives with his wife J&hir Burhi or Sarhul-Sarnd in
the Sarna or sacred grove, a patch of the forest primeval left
intact, to afford a refuge for the forest gods. Every village has its
own Desw&li, who is held responsible for the orops, and receives
periodical worship at the agricultural festivals. His appropriate
offering is a hard or he-buffalo; to his wife fowls are sacrificed.
Ghimi is another of the Sarnd deities whose precise functions I have
been unable to ascertain. Bullocks and pigs are sacrificed to him
at irregular intervals. Chandor appears to be same as Chando
Omol or Chanala, the moon worshipped by women, as the wife of

1 Ethnclogy of Bengal , 188.

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MTTNDA.

104

Festivals.

Sing Bonga and the mother of the stars. Colonel Dalton mentions
the legend that she was faithless to her husband, and he out her in
two, 4 hut repenting of his anger he allows her at times to shine
forth in full beauty/ Goats are offered to her in the Sara&.
H&prom is properly the homestead, but it is used in a wider sense
to denote the group of dead anoestors who are worshipped in the
homestead by setting apart for them a small portion of every meal
and with periodical offerings of fowls. They are supposed to be
ever on the watoh for chances of doing good or evil to their descen-
dants, and the Munda fully realise the necessity for appeasing and
keeping them in good humour.

The festivals of the tribe are the following: — (1) Sarhul or
Sarjum-B&bd, the spring festival correspond-
ing to the Baha or Bah-Bonga of the Santals
and Hos in Chait (March- April) when the sdl tree is in bloom.
Eaoh household sacrifices a cock and makes offerings of sdl flowers
to the founders of the village in whose honour the festival is held.
(2) KadletA or Batauli in Asarh at the commencement of the
rainy season. u Eaoh cultivator,” says Colonel Dalton, “ sacrifices
a fowl, and after some mysterious rites a wing is stripped off and
inserted in the cleft of a bamboo and stuck up in the rioe-field and
dung-heap. If this is omitted, it is supposed that the rice will not
come to maturity/' (3) NanA or Jom-NanA, the festival of new
rioe in A sin when the highland rioe is harvested. A white cook
is sacrificed to Sing-Bouga, and the first fruits of the harvest are
laid before him. Until this has been done, it would be an aot of
impiety to eat the new rioe. (4) Kharid puja or Kolom Singh,
called by the Hos Deswdli Bonga or Mdgh Parab celebrating
the harvesting of the winter rice, the main crop of the year. Five
fowls and various vegetables are offered to Deswdli, the god of the
village at the khalihan or threshing floor. Among the Hos of Sing-
bhum the festival is kept as a sort of saturnale , during which the
people give themselves up to drunkenness and all kinds of debauohery.
This is less conspicuously the case with the Mundas of the plateau
who live scattered among Hindu and Christian neighbours, and do
not form a compact tribal community like the Hos of the Kolhan.
The festival, moreover, is kept by the Mundas on one day only, and
is not spread over a month or six weeks, during which time the
people of different villages vie with each other in dissipation, as
they do in the Kolh&n.

The funeral ceremonies of Mundas do not differ materially from
those of the Hos, of whioh Colonel Dalton’s description has been
quoted in the first volume of this Glossary.

Succession among the Mundas is governed by their own
oustoms, which appear to have been little affected
u occasion. by the influence of Hindu law. Property is

equally divided among the sons, but no division is made until the
youngest son is of age. With them, as with the Sant&ls, daughters
get no share in the inheritance ; they are allotted among the sons
just like the live-stock. “ Thus if a man dies, leaving three sons and
three daughters and thirty head of cattle, on a division eaoh son

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MUNDA.

would get ten head of cattle and one sister ; but should there be only
one sister, they wait till she marries and divide the pan/ 9 or bride-
prioe, whioh usually consists of about six head of cattle. Among the
Hos of Singbhum the bride-price is higher them with the Mundas,
and the question of its amount has there been found to affect seriously
the number of marriages.

According to ancient and universal tradition, the central table
land of Chota Nagpur Proper was originally
officiate communes and into parhds or rural communes, com-

prising from ten to twenty-five villages, and
presided over by a divisional chief, called the rdjd or miinda of
the parhd . In 1839, titular rajas of the parhd were still existing
in the Fiscal Division of Khukrd near Rdnchi, who retained
considerable authority in tribal disputes, and at times of festival
and hunting. But this element in the Munda village system has now
fallen into decay, and survives only in the jhandas or flags of the
parhd villages, and in the peculiar titles bestowed on the culti-
vators themselves. The exclusive right to fly a particular flag at
the great danoing festivals is jealously guarded by every Munda
village, and serious fights not unfrequently result from the violation
of this privilege. Besides this, individual villages in a parhd bear
specific titles, such as rdjd , diwdn , kumcdr , thdkur , chhotd Idl , eto.,
similar to those which prevail in the household of the reigning family,
whioh obviously refer to some organization whioh no longer exists.
I am informed that these officials still make the arrangements for the
large hunting parties whioh take place at certain seasons of the
year.

A Kol village community oonsists, when perfeot, of the following
offioers : — Miinda , mahato , pdhn, bhanddri , gordit, godld , and lohdr .
Washermen, barbers, and potters have been added since 1839, and
even now are only found near much frequented halting plaoes, and
in villages where the larger Hindu tenure-holders live. The Kols
invariably shave themselves, and their women wash the clothes.

(1) Munda. — The miinda is the ohief of the bhuinhdrs , or de-
scendants of the original olearers of the village. He is a person
of great consequence in the village ; and all demands from the
bhuinhdrs, whether of money or labour, must be notified by the owner
of the village through the miinda . He is remunerated for his trouble
by the bhuinhdri land, whioh he holds at a low rate of rent, and
reoeives no other salary. In pargand Lodhmd, and in the south-
eastern portion of Lohardagd he sometimes performs the mdhato 9 $
duties as well as his own, and he then gets a small jdgir of half
a pdtcd of land rent-free.

(2) Mahato. — The functions of a mdhato have been compared to
those of a patwdri or village accountant, but he may be more aptly
described as a rural settlement offioer. He allots the land of the
village among the cultivators, giving to eaoh man a goti or olod of
earth as a symbol of possession ; he oollects the rent, pays it to the
owner, and settles any disputes as to the amount due from the raiyats ;
and, in short, manages all pecuniary matters connected with the land.
He is appointed by the owner of the village, and receives one pdwd

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106

of rdjha* land rent-free, as a jdgir or servioe- tenure. But the office
is neither hereditary nor permanent, and the mdhato is liable to
be dismissed at the landlord’s discretion. Dismissal, however, is
unusual, and the mdhato is often suooeeded by his son. Where the
mdhato collects the rents, he almost universally reoeives a fee, called
bdttd, of half an dnnd from esoh cultivator, or of one dnnd for every
house in the village. In one village bdttd amounts to four dnnas
and a half on every pdtcd of land. Occasionally, where there is no
bhanddri or agent for the owner’s rent-paying land, the mdhato gets
three bundles ( karah ) of grain in the straw, containing from ten to
twenty sers apiece, at every harvest. Thus during the year he would
receive three bundles of gondii from the cold weather crop, and the
same amount from the gord or early rioe, and the don or late rice.
In khdlsd villages, which are under the direct management of the
Mah&r&j&, the mdhato often holds, in addition to his official jdgir ,
a single paved of land, called kharcha or rozina kket, from the proceeds
of which he is expected to defray the occasional expenses incurred
in calling upon cultivators to pay their rent, etc.

The functions of the mdhato are shown in greater detail in the
following extract from Dr. Davidson’s Report of 1839 : — “ On a day
appointed, the thikddar or farmer proceeds to the akhrd or plaoe
of assembly of the village, where he is met by the mdhato, pdhn,
bhanddri, and as many of the rayaU as choose to attend. He pro-
ceeds, agreeably to the dictation of the mdhato , to write down the
account of the cultivation of the different rayat s, stating the number
of pdtcas held and the rent paid by each. Having furnished this
aocount, any new ray at 8 who may wish to have lands in the village,
after having the quantity and rent settled, have a goti given to them.
If any of the old rayats require any new land, a goti is taken for
that, but not for the old cultivation. The mdhato oolleots the rent
as the instalments become due, according to the above-mentioned
account given to the farmer ; and all differences as to the amount of
rent payable by a rayat , if any ever arise, which very seldom happens,
are settled by the opinion of the mdhato . So well does this mode
answer in practice, that in point of fact a dispute as to the amount
of rent owed by a rayat is of rare occurrence. When a farmer
wishes to cheat a rayat , he acouses him of having cultivated more
land than he is entitled to, or of owing him maswdr or grain-rent
for land held in excess ; and if such a thing as a dispute as to the
amount of rent owed ever does arise, the mdhato y 8 evidence is gene-
rally considered conclusive by both parties.”

(3) Pahn. — The importance of the pdhn , or priest of the village
gods, may be inferred from the current phrase in whioh his duties
are contrasted with those of the mdhato. The pdhn , it is said,
“ makes the village ” ( gdon bandtd), while the mdhato only “ manages
it” ( gdon chaldtd). He must be a bhuinhdr, as no one but a
descendant of the earliest settlers in the village could know how to
propitiate the local gods. He is always chosen from one family ; but
the actual pdhn is changed at intervals of from three to five years
by the ceremony of the sup or winnowing-fan, which is used as
a divining rod, and taken from house to nouse by the boys of the

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village. The bhuinhdr at whose house the sup stops is eleoted pdhn.
On the death of a. pdhn, he is frequently, but not invariably, suoceeded
by his son. Rent-free lands are attached to the office of pdhn under
the following names:— (1) Pahnt, the personal jdgir or service-
tenure of the priest, generally containing one pdwd of land. , (2)
Ddlikatdri, for which the pdhn has to make offerings to Jdhir Burhi,
the goddess of the village. It is called ddlikatdri, as it is sup-
posed to defray the expenses of the Kartn festival, when a branch
(dali) of the karma tree is cut down and planted in the fields. (3)
Desauli, a sort of bhutkheta or devil’s acre, the produoe of whioh is
devoted to a great triennial festival in honour of Desauli, the divinity
of the grove. This land is either cultivated by the pdhn himself, or
by raiyats who pay him rent. (4) Pdnbhdrd and tdhalu are probably
the same. Lands held under these names are cultivated by the
pdhn himself or his near relations ; and whoever has them, is bound
to supply water at the various festivals.

(4) BhandarI — The bhanddri or bailiff is the landlord’s agent in
respect of the management of the village. He is usually a Hindu,
and represents the landlord’s point of view in village questions, just
as the pdhn is the spokesman of the bhuinhdra or original settlers^
He generally holds one pdwd of land rent free from the owner,
receiving also from every raiyat three karats or sheaves of each orop
as it is out — one of gondii, one of early rioe, and one of wet rioe.
Instead of the land, he sometimes gets Rs. 3 or Rs. 4 in oash, with
12 kata or 4£ owt. of paddy.

(5) Gorait. — The gorait is, in fact, the ehaukiddr or village watch-
man. He communicates the owner’s orders to the raiyats, brings
them to the mdhato to pay their rents, and seleots coolies when
required for public purposes. As a rule he holds no service land,
but receives the three usual karats or sheaves from every oultivator.

(6) Ahir or Goal a. — The dhir’s duty is to look after the oattle
of the village, and to aooount for any that are stolen. He is remune-
rated by a payment of one kat of paddy for each pair of plough-
bullooks owned by the cultivators whose oattle are under his oharge.
He also gets the three karats or sheaves at harvest time, besides
an occasional slip or winnowing fan full of paddy. If oows are
under the dhir’s oharge, the milk of every alternate day is his per-
quisite. In the month of Aghan (December) he takes five sers of
milk round to the cultivators, receiving in return pakhtrd or 20 sera
of paddy as a free gift. He always pays the dbwdb known as
dddani ghi, and in some villages has to give the baithawdn ghl as well.
In a very few cases the dhir holds half a pdwd of land rent-free.

(7) Lohar. — The lohdr or blacksmith gets one kdt of paddy and
the three karats for every plough in the village, and is also paid two
or three annas for every new phar or ploughshare. In a very few
villages he holds half a pdwd of land rent-free.

The kolwdl or constable and the ehaukiddr or watchman do not
belong to the genuine Munda village system, and need not be
mentioned here.

In the Fiscal Division of Tori the bulk of the inhabitants belong
to the Kharwdr sub-tribe of Bhogtds, and the village system differs

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MUNDA.

108

munjaniab.

from that which prevails on the central plateau. Here the pdhn is
the only official who holds service land, and he gets half a pdtti, or
not quite two standard bighas. He performs the village pujds, and
often does the work of a mdhato , when the owner of the village is
an absentee. But even then the landlord sometimes employs a
bailiff, called bdrhil , to collect the rents.

In the tract known as the Five ParganAs, including TAmAr,
Bundu, Silli, RAhe, and Baranda, as well as in the Mdnkipatti , or
that part of Sonpur pargand whioh borders on Singbhum district, we
meet with mdnkis and miinda * who are undoubtedly the descendants
of the original chiefs, and still hold the villages which their ancestors
founded. Here the parha divisions exist in their entirety, as groups
of from twelve to twenty-four villages, eaoh of which has its own
miinda or village bead; while the whole commune is subject to
a divisional headman called manki , who collects the fixed rents payable
by the miindas. The chief village officer is th epdhn, who holds from
one to five kdts of land rent-free as ddlikatdri . A hat in this sense is
a measure of land analogous to, if not identical with, the khandi of
the KolhAn in Singbhum, and denotes the quantity of land whioh
can be sown with one kdt of seed. In this part of the country the
miinda sometimes has a deputy called dltcan who assists him to
oolleot his rents, and bhanddris are occasionally met with.

Mundabdrik, a olass of bar-
bers in Chota Nagpur who only
shave Mundas.

Munda-KhariA, a sub-caste of
KhariAs in Chota Nagpur.

Munda.LohAr, a sub-caste of
LohArs in LohardagA.

MundA-Mahili, a sub-caste of
Mahilis in Chota Nagpur.

Munda-MAnjhi, a sub-tribe of
Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Munda-Oraon, a sub-tribe of
Oraons in Chota Nagpur.

Mundiba, mahud tree, a
totemistio sept of JuAngs in
Orissa.

Mundoraj, a tree, a totemistio
sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Mundra f a section of Mahesris
in Behar .

M undr i» quail, a totemistio
sept of Mundas in Chota Nag-
pur.

Mundu or Badar, a dense
jungle, a sub-sept of the Saren
sept of SantAls.

MunduAbf small mushroom, a
totemistio sept of JuAngs in
Orissa.

Munduia, a sept of Hos in
Singbhum.

MunduSi a section of the
Kulsunri sub-caste of Sunris in
Behar.

Munga, coral, a totemistio sept
of Kharwars in Chota Nagpur;
a section of the Karan sub-caste
of KAyasths in Behar.

Munga SAg, a vegetable, a
totemistio sept of Mundas in
Chota Nagpur.

Muniar-Ganjhu, a sub-caste
of Kharwars in Hazaribagh.

Munis , an agricultural labourer.

Munjaniar, a fruit from
whioh oil is made, a totemistio
sept of Chiks in Chota Nagpur.

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MUNJNIAR.

109

MTJBIARI.

Munjniar, a wild oreeper, a
totemistio sept of Oraons in
Chota Nagpur.

Munri, fried rice, a totemistio
sept of Mundas in Ghota Nagpur.

Munshi, an honorary title of
Brahmans.

Murd&farash, a sub-oast© of
Dorns in Bengal who attend to
the cremation and disposal of
dead bodies, or undertakers, eaoh
in oharge of a burning ghat .
They do the same work as
GangAputras, but the latter rank
higher.

Munsif, an honorary title of
KAyasths in Bengal.

Muntri, a section of GoAlAs in
Behar.

Mura, a synonym for Munda,
an honorific title bestowed in
Bankura on the eldest son of
a well-to-do cultivator of the
Bhumij tribe. See Manki.

MuraOy a synonym for Koiri.

Mur&ri, Hurdli, a corruption
of MundAri, sometimes used out-
side of Ghota Nagpur as a
synonym for Munda.

Murba, a section of the Dhap-
rA and PachainyA sub-caste of
Dorns in Behar.

Murchulia, a sept of PAns
in Ghota Nagpur.

Murga, cook, a totemistio sept
of Oraons in Ghota Nagpur.

Murgear, a section of KhariAs
in Chota Nagpur.

Murgi, hen, a totemistio sept
of BinjhiAs and Eharwars in
Chota Nagpur.

Murhia or Sebaka, a group
of the PandA sub-caste of TJtkal
Brahmans in Orissa.

Muri, a totemistio sept of Kor-
was in Chota Nagpur whose
ancestors made a chutd of four
soulls and oooked their dinner;
a sept of Mundas whose totem is
wild fowl.

Muria or MuriAri, a sub -caste
of MallAhs in Behar.

Mariydriy a boating, fishing, and cultivating oaste of
Behar. The origin of the Muriari is unoer-
rigin# tain. Buohanan, 1 who calls them MariyAri

MAlas, was of opinion that they belonged to an aboriginal raoe
from the upper valley of the Ganges. Other authorities, however,
connect them with the Kewat. Their only tradition is the some-
what vague one that their progenitor was a certain Kai DAs, who
came from * the south country/

The Muriyari marry their daughters as infants or as adults
according to their means, the former practioe
Mamage ' being of course the more fashionable of tne two.

Polygamy is sanctioned in theory, but is found too expensive in
actual life for many to indulge in it, A widow may marry again by
eagai. She is expected to marry her husband’s younger brother if he
leaves one, but otherwise her choice is free. Divoroe is not allowed.
Their religion, marriage ceremony, funeral observances, and
so forth, are of the orthodox type. Maithil
Itehglon ‘ Brahmans act as their priests, and are said to

1 Martin's Eastern India , i, 172.

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MUKIARI.

110

MUEMI,

inour no social degradation by doing so. B&ndi, Parameshwari,
and the Panoh Pir are their favourite minor gods, to whom they
offer flowers, betel leaves, sweetmeats, etc., in a part of their own
houses whioh is plastered with cow-dung for the occasion and called
gosainghar .

The sooial position of the Muriy&ri is much the same as that
of Gangotas, Kurmis, and Koiris, and Brahmans
" ia ' b m will take water and certain kinds of sweetmeats
from their hands. Their diet is that of most orthodox Hindus,
except that, like most of the boating and fishing castes, they indulge
freely in spirits. In Bhdgalpur Muriy&ris who have taken to culti-
vation call themselves Maghaya', and profess to look down upon
the boating and fishing members of the caste, whom they represent
as having come from the North-Western Provinces. It is not clear
that this divergence of occupation has as yet led to the formation of
two distinot suo-oastes. The cultivating section of the caste, indeed,
appears not to be a very strong one, and few of its members have
risen above the status of a non-occupancy raiyat, while many are
landless day-labourers paid in cash or kind. In this connexion it
deserves notice that in Arrah, where the Mariyari are very numerous,
they are employed as ferrymen, boatmen, and fishermen, but refuse
to carry palanquins or to settle down as cultivators. Many large
boats manned by them arrive at the V&runi fair in November, laden
with pulse and other vegetable products.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of
the Muri&ri caste in 1881 : —

Monghyr ... ... ... ... 385

Bh&galpur ... ... ... ... 272

Pumiah ... ... ... ... 1,764

Maldah ... ... ... ... 1,051

Santal Parganas ... ... ... ... 255

Murkia, a section of Mahesris in Behar.

Jftttroti, Tamang Bhotia> hkang , Satn, a Mongolian or semi-
_ . . Mongolian caste, who claim to be among the

n ure * earliest settlers in Nepal. About their origin

little is known, nor do their own traditions throw muoh light upon
the question ; but their physioal characteristics, and the fact that
their exogamous divisions (thars) bear Tibetan names, seem to lend
support to the opinion that they are descended from a Tibetan stock,
modified more or less by intermixture with Nepalese raoes. Like
most Himalayan castes, the Murmis have a large number of thars y
which are shown in Appendix I. The form of exogamy observed is
the simple one that a man may not marry a woman of his own thar .
For the rest marriage is regulated by the standard formula mamera ,
ehachera , eto., calculated to seven generations in the descending line.
In the case of descents through females these prohibitions are not so
strictly observed, and public opinion does not disapprove of marriages
with tolerably near relatives, provided that the primary rule of
marrying outside the thar is not departed from. The question of
prohibited degrees among the Murmis is greatly complicated by the
rules regarding adoptive brotherhood ( mith , dosti, kanyaketi ) — a

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MURMI.

very obscure subject which I have been unable to work out thorough-
ly. When a man desires to adopt another man as his brother, he
sends a message intimating his feelings, and if the reply is favourable
presents are exchanged. A day is then fixed for the performance of
the regular oeremony, at which a Brahman officiates as priest. The
two friends stand faoing one another, each with a rupee at his feet.
The rupees are solemnly interchanged, and the pair bedaub one
another between the eyebrows with the mixture of rice and ourds
used in the marriage ceremony. A fee of Re. 1 is paid to the
Brahman, and the proceedings end with a feast.

The fiotitious relationship thus established is regarded as
Marriage equivalent to actual kinship. The adopted

8 * brothers may not address or speak of one

another by name, nor may they talk to eaoh other’s wives, even
though these may have taken part in the ceremony. Their descend-
ants, again, are supposed not to intermarry till seven generations
have passed. Some, indeed, say that this prohibition extends to the
entire thar , and enumerate several thars whioh may not intermarry
by reason of their founders having contracted mith. Others, again,
say that mith can only be entered into by members of the same
thar , whose descendants in the first generation would in any case be
forbidden to intermarry. Great importance is attached to the
observance of the rules connected with mith. In British territory
a man who infringes them by marrying a woman within the for-
bidden degrees is punished by exclusion from the caste, and no
Murmi will eat, drink, or smoke with him. In Nepal the penalties
are said to be far more severe : the offender is denounced as

hdr-phurd, and is liable to be sold as a slave, or, according to some
aocounts, to be punished capitally. Murmis may contract mith with
Bhotias, Lepchas, Limbus, Khambus, Yakhas, Mangars, Gurungs,
and Sunwaj-s ; and members of the last six castes may even he
admitted into the Murmi community.

With the Murmis, as with most of the Himalayan oastes, adult-
marriage prevails, and sexual intercourse before marriage is tolerated,
it being understood that if a girl becomes pregnant she will disclose
the name of her lover, and he will come forward to marry her. A
bride-prioe (sot) of Rs. 50 to Rs. 60 in ornaments and cash is paid
to the bride’s parents. The marriage takes place at night in the
house of the bride. A Lama officiates as priest and besmears the
foreheads of the couple with a mixture of curds and rioe. The
bridegroom then puts vermilion on the bride’s forehead and the
parting of her hair and ohanges places with her, after which the
Lama brings their heads together so that their foreheads touch
(lagan). This is deemed the binding portion of the ceremony.
Polygamy is permitted, but is not muoh resorted to in practioe, and
it is unusual to find a Murmi with more than one wife. Widows

are not allowed to marry again by the regular ritual; but they
may be kept as mistresses, and the ohildren of women so kept are
said to be considered not inferior to those bom in regular wedlook.
Divorce is permitted on the ground of adultery or unsuitability

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MUBMI.

112

of temper. Divorced wives may not marry again, but become
concubines on the same terms as widows.

In the matter of inheritance the Murmis follow a tribal oustom
of their own. Sons inherit in equal shares ; failing sons, the father
succeeds ; then the daughters take equal shares. Failing daughters,
the widow inherits, and in any case she must be maintained by the
persons who succeed to the property.

The religion of the caste is not easy to define. We may discern in
it a substratum of primitive animism overlaid
6 lglon * by elements borrowed from Hinduism, and, less

freely, from Buddhism. Everything tends towards gradual adop-
tion of the Nepalese form of Hinduism, and Buddhist usages are
believed to be on the decline, though the Lama still serves as priest
at a Murmi wedding, and flags stamped with the sacred om may
be seen flying in Murmi villages. Notwithstanding this general
tendenoy towards the triumph of Hinduism, some of the popular
deities of the caste seem to belong to an earlier type. The stone
fetish called Thangbaljho is honoured by winding cloth round
it and sprinkling rice on its top ; and every September goats
and fowls are sacrificed and their blood poured forth on the
stone. Similar offerings are made to Purbujd devatd, a forest god
who lives in a tree and visits with fever and rheumatism those
who neglect his worship. Bhim Singh, one of the P&ndava brothers,
is worshipped at the Durga Puja with sacrifices of buffaloes, goats,
fowls, and ducks. Sherkijho is a fetish of ill-defined attributes;
while Gyong and Changreshi appear to be deified Lamas. Behind
these again are the village and household gods, a shifting and
shadowy multitude, which no man can number or describe, clamouring,
like the ghosts who crowded round Odysseus, for their share of
sacrifice and libation.

Brahmans have not yet been called in to organize this chaotic
Pantheon. Their functions are confined to presiding over the
ceremony of mith y and occasionally assisting at the worship of some
of the standard Hindu gods. The daily religion of the caste is
looked after by Lamas or by any Murmi who has a turn for cere-
monial ministration.

The rich bum their dead and preserve a piece of bone to be
, deposited in a private gumpa. The ordinary

789 0 e practice is to bury, the body being laid in the

grave with the head to the north and fire applied to the mouth.
A small enclosure roofed in with a big stone is built round the

f rave, a cairn is piled on the stone, and a flag is planted hard by.

’or seven days after death the relatives of the deceased observe
formal mourning and do not eat salt with their food. On the
eighth day a propitiatory offering of meat, rice, eggs, plantains,
and sweetmeats is presented at the grave, and a feast is given
by the chief mourner. For the next six months small daily offer-
ings are made in the house to a piece of cloth tom from the shroud
of the deceased : at the end of that time a Lama is called in and
the final ceremony is performed.

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MU8AHAS.

The bulk of the Murmi caste are oultivators, and regard agricul-
_ .. . . , ture as their original and fitting occupation.

Many of them serve m the police, and ijama
Murmis are enlisted as recruits by the 1st Gurkhas. In Nepal
they are not reckoned among the regular fighting castes, but they
are admitted into the Kirdnti regiments raised by Jang Bahadur
some thirty years ago. A considerable number are employed as
labourers on the tea gardens near Darjiling. In the matter of
diet they have few scruples : they eat beef, pork, fowls, and frogs,
and indulge freely in spirituous liquors. Notwithstanding tins,
their social status in the Himalayan region is respeotable, and
Nepalese Brahmans and Chattris will take water and sweetmeats
from their hands. They themselves eat with Limbus, Khambus,
Lepchas, and Bhotias.

In 1872 the Murmis numbered 6,557 in Darjiling and 23 in
Jalpigori, while in 1881 they numbered 5,324 only in Darjiling.

Mumnu, nilgao, a totemistie
section of Kurmis in Chota Nag-
pur and Orissa; a sept of Hos
and Sautdls.

Murmu&r, a totemistie section
of Mdhilis in Manbhum, the
members of which will not touch,
kill, or eat the murmu or nilgdi.

Mumnurwar, a sept of Khar-
wars in Chota Nagpur.

Muro, a sub-sept of the Mur-
mu sept of Santdls.

Muromah, a sept of Mundas
in Chota Nagpur.

Murtel, a thar of the Gargya
gotra of Nepali Brahmans.

Murti, a section of the S&t-
mulia Maghayd sub-caste of
Kdndus in Behar.

Murum, stag, a totemistio sept
of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Murwd, a section of the
Tirhutiyd sub-caste of Dorns in
Behar.

Mus, rat, a totemistio sept of
Godlds, Cham&rs, and Kharwars
in Chota Nagpur; a section of
Kurmis in Chota Nagpur and
Orissa ; a totemistio sept of Chiks
and Dorns.

Musa or Musu, mouse, a to-
temistio sept of Mundas and
P&ns in Chota Nagpur.

^Eujsahar, Bhuiyd , Sddd Banrdj , Banmanush , a Dravidian
cultivating and servile caste of Behar, who appear to be an offshoot
from the Bhuiyd tribe of Chota Nagpur. The grounds for this
opinion are stated at length in the article Bhuiyd and need not be
repeated here. The question of the origin of the caste has been
examined by Mr. J. C. Nesfield in an elaborate monograph on
The Mushera* of Central and Upper India, published in the Calcutta
Review for January 1888.

Mr. Nesfield’ s inquiries into the traditions of the Musahars
(as I prefer to spell the name) tend to oonneot
to ^em with the Cherus and Savors, who play a
prominent part in the legendary history of the
Ganges valley. From this it would follow, if the standard classifica-
tion be accepted, that the Musahars belong to the Kolarian group of

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114

tribes, while my hypothesis would olass them among the Dravidians.
The distinction, however, between Kolarian and Dravidian appears
to me, and, I believe, also to Mr. Nesfield, to rest solely upon
peculiarities of language, which in this case at any rate do not
correspond to real differences of race. If the test of language is
rejected, and we look only to physioal characteristics, the so-called
Dravidians and Kolarians can only be regarded as local varieties of
one and the same stock. This being so, there is really no material
difference between Mr. Nesfield’s view and my own. He oonnects
the Musahars of the North- Western Provinces with the Dravidian
Savars and Cherus; I trace the Musahars of Behar to the equally
Dravidian Bhuiyfis of Southern Chota Nagpur. Both hypotheses
may conceivably be correct. We both agree in thinking the Musa-
hars a fragment of some Dravidian tribe recently and imperfectly
absorbed into the Hindu caste system ; and if this main point be
oonoeded, it is not very important to determine from whioh of the
known Dravidian tribes the fragment was broken off.

The meaning and derivation of the name Musahar have often
been discussed, and Mr. Nesfield has the following remarks on the
subject : —

“ The name given to the tribe in this essay has been spelt
throughout as Mushdra, which is a slight departure from the spelling
or spellings hitherto adopted in English books. The name has
been supposed to be made up of two Hindi words signifying ‘ rat-
taker.* Hence in Buchanan’s Eastern India they are described
as a people i who have derived their name from eating rats.’ But
rat-catohing or rat-eating is by no means the peculiar, or even a

f rominent, characteristic of the tribe; and the name in Upper
ndia at least is pronounoed by the natives of the oountry as
Mtlshera, and not as Musahar (rat-taker) or Musarha (rat-killer).
In an old folk-tale which has recently come to my knowledge, the
name is made to signify flesh-seeker or hunter, being derived from
mftsu y 4 flesh,’ and kbra, ‘ seeker,’ and a legend is told as to the event
which led to the tribe being driven to maintain itself by hunting
wild animals. This is a more comprehensive title than rat-catcher,
besides resting on better authority. Probably, however, both deriva-
tions are fanciful, — Hindi versions of a name which is not of
Hindi origin. It is certain that the more isolated members of the
tribe, who still speak a language of their own unconnected with Hindi,
call themselves by a name whioh sounds like Mflshera ; and it is
not likely that men who have preserved their original speech con-
tinuously for so many centuries would have designated themselves
by a name borrowed from a foreign language.

“ There are one or two other names by whioh the tribe is
known besides Mushdra. In all the districts of Oudh in whioh the
tribe is found, they are commonly, and in some places exclusively,
known by the title of Banm&nusb, or man of the forest. The
name Banmfinush is of purely Hindi origin ; and though intended
to be a term of reproach applied by Hindus to a people from
whom they stand aloof as impure and savage, it has been aooepted*
by Mushdras themselves, many of whom scarcely know themselves

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115

MUSAHAB.

by any other title, and all of whom are entirely ignorant of its
origin and meaning. Other names, less commonly known or used,
are Deosiyd, derived from their great ancestor Deosi; Banr&j, or
king of the forest, a less contemptuous, or perhaps an ironical, form
of the name Banmdnush ; and Maskhdn, or eater of flesh, another
form of the name Masehra or Mushera. Sometimes, if a Mushdra
is asked to which of the great Indian castes he belongs, he will
tell you that he is an Ahir, or rather a subdivision of Ahir, the
caste of cowherd ; and he appears to be rather anxious to have his
title to this honour reoognized. But in point of fact he has no
claim to any suoh lineage. Musheras are the hereditary enemies
of Ahirs, as all their legends testify, and many are the petty
raids that they have made against them for the possession of cattle
and forest.”

I am myself inclined to believe that the popular etymology
“ rat-catcher ” or rat-eater is the true one, and that the word is an
opprobrious epithet bestowed by the Hindus on the caste with reference
to their fondness for eating field-rats. From Vedio times down to the
present day we find the promiscuous habits of the non-Aryans
in respect of food exciting the special aversion of the Aryan colonists
and forming the basis of depreciatory names which tend to sup-
plant the original tribal designation. It can hardly be expected
that the givers of contemptuous names should be guided by a nice
sense of scientific precision, and would stop to consider whether
the practice of eating rats was really the peculiar or prominent
characteristic of a particular tribe. The nickname would be
bestowed at random, and it is conceivable that even in the same part
of the country it might be conferred upon several different tribes.

The internal structure of the caste is shown in Appendix I. So
_ , . , far as I can ascertain, the only sub- castes are

Internal structure. T j rhutia and MaghaiyA, and it is doubtful

whether the distinction between these amounts to true endogamy or
represents anything more than the fact that marriage between families
living on opposite sides of the Ganges is comparatively uncommon.
The divisions Kikhmun and Balakmun appear now to be purely
titular groups, which bear no definite relation to marriage. It is a
plausible conjecture that they were at one time exogamous sections,
which broke up into smaller groups and thus lost their exogamous
character. On the north of the Ganges the system of exogamy
followed by the Tirhutid Musahars is very elaborate, and a man
may not marry a woman belonging to his own section, or the
sections of which his mother and his paternal and maternal grand-
mothers were members. If, again, the excluded ascendants of a
particular couple happened to be of the same section, the marriage
is forbidden, although the boy and girl themselves belong to different
sections. Am ong the more primitive Musahars further south the
simpler rule prevails that a man may not marry a woman of his own
section. This is the case also among the Bhuiyas ; and there seem
to be grounds for inspecting that the minute regulations which the
Tirhutid Musahars affect to observe have been borrowed by them
from some of their Hindu neighbours.

A 2

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116

On the north of the Ganges, Tirhutii Musahars are said to
M . practise inf ant- marriage; while in Shahabad

amage * girls are usually not married until they have

passed the age of puberty, and sexual intercourse before marriage is
said to be tolerated. A bride-prioe of Rs. 2 is paid for a virgin, but
the tender is reduoed to half if there are reasons to doubt her
integrity. The marriage ceremony is based on the Hindu model,
and does not differ materially from that in vogue among other low
castes in Behar. The well-known formula —

Gangd k& p&ni samundar ki sank
Bar KanyA jag jag anand

(May Ganges water and sea-shell betide
Enduring bliss to bridegroom and to bride)

is recited by one of the elders present, and water and rioe are
sprinkled on the bridegroom’s head. The bride is then lifted by
her mother, and the bridegroom marks her forehead five times with
vermilion. Consummation follows at onoe, and the married couple
usually leave for the bridegroom’s house next day.

Polygamy is said to be unknown. The remarriage of widows
by the mgai form is permitted, and is not fettered by the common
condition requiring the widow to marry her late husband’s younger
brother. Divorce is allowed, with the sanction of the caste pan-
chAyat, for infidelity on the part of the wife. The husband breaks
in two a piece of dried grass ( khar ) in the presence of the panch&yat,
and formally renounces his wife by saying that in future he will
look upon her as his mother. Divorced women may marry again
by the ritual appointed in the case of widows.

The religion of the Musahars illustrates with remarkable
. clearness the gradual transformation of the

igiosL fetiohistio animism characteristic of the more

primitive Dravidian tribes into the debased Hinduism practised in
the lower ranks of the caste system. Among the standard gods of
the Hindu Pantheon, K&li alone is admitted to the honour of regular
worship. To her the men of the caste sacrifice a castrated goat,
and the women offer five wheaten cakes with prayers that her favour
may be shown to them in the pains of childbirth. In parts of Gya
and Hazaribagh an earlier stage of her worship may be observed.
Her shrine stands at the outskirts of the village, and 6he is regarded
as a sort of local goddess, to be appeased on occasion, like the
Tbakur&ni Mai of the Hill Bhuiyas, by the sacrifice of a hog. It is
curious to observe that the definite acceptance of Kali as a member of
the Hindu system seems ruther to have detracted from the respect in
whioh she was held before she assumed this comparatively orthodox
position. Her transformation into a Hindu goddess seems to have
rendered her less malignant. Her worship, though ostensibly put
forward as the leading feature of the Musahar religion, seems to be
looked upon more as a tribute to social respectability than as a
matter vitally affecting a man’s personal welfare K&li, or Debi
Mai, as she is commonly called, may be appeased by an occasional

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117

MUSAHAK.

saorifioe, but the Birs require to be kept constantly in good humour,
or they may do serious mischief. The six Birs or heroes known as
Tulsi Bir, Rikmun, Ram Bir, Bhaw&r Bir, Asan Bir, and Charakh
Bir are believed to be the spirits of departed Musahars who exercise
a highly malignant activity from the world of the dead. Rikmun is
often spoken of as the purka or anoestor of the caste, and when
a separate sacrifice is offered to him the worshipper recites the names
of his own immediate forefathers. On ordinary occasions the Birs
are satisfied with offerings of sweetmeats prepared in ghi, but
once in every two or three years they demand a collective sacrifice of
a more costly and eluborate character. A pig is provided, and
country liquor, with a mixture of rice, molasses, and milk is offered
at each of a number of balls of clay whioh are supposed to represent
the Birs. 1 Then a number of Bhakats or devotees are chosen, one
for each Bir, with the advice and assistance of a Brahman, who
curiously enough is supposed to know the mind of each Bir as to the
fitness of his minister. The shaft of a plough and a 6tout stake
being fixed in the ground, crossed swords are attached to them, and
the Bhakats having worked themselves up into a sort of hypnotic
condition, go through a variety of acrobatio exeroises on the upturned
sword-blades. If they pass through this uninjured, it is understood
that the Birs accept the sacrifice. The pig is then speared to death
with a sharp bamboo stake, and its blood collected in a pot and
mixed with country liquor. Some of this compound is poured forth
on the ground and on the balls of clay, while the rest is dr unk by
the Bhakats. The ceremony concludes with a feast in which the
worshippers partake of the offerings.

The Musahars have not yet attained to the dignity of keeping
Priesthood. Brahmans of their own, though they call in

1 fcl00 ' Brahmans as experts to fix auspicious days for

marriages and important religious ceremonies, to assist in naming
ohildren, and even to interpret the will of characteristic Musahar
deities like the Birs. In the matter of funeral ceremonies the
tendency is to imitate Hindu usage. A meagre version of the
standard sraddh is performed about ten days after death, and once
a year, usually in the month of October, regular oblations are made for
the benefit of deceased ancestors. It deserves notice that with
Musahars, as with Dorns, the sister’s son of the deceased officiates as
priest at the sraddh.

The social status of the caste is pretty closely defined by the

Social status. * they will eat any kind of food with

1 all Hindu castes except Chamars, Dosadhs,

Dhobi, Dom, and Mihtar, but Dorns alone will take food from them.
In matters of diet they have few scruples, eating pork, fowls, frogs,
tortoises, alligators, jackals, cats, wild and tame snakes, snails, and
various sorts of lizards, particularly the gos&mp or ignana, while
field-rats are esteemed a speoial delicacy. Beef and the flesh of

1 Some speak of the balls as the “ houses’* of the Birs, but this seems
to be a modern refinement on the primitive idea, which recognizes no distinc-
tion between the god himself and the fetish which represents him.

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MUSAHAB.

118

horses and donkeys they hold to be forbidden. In the North-West
Provinces, according to Mr. Nesfield, the Dolk&rha or palanquin-
bearing Musahars eat horse flesh and keep fowls, while the Pah&ri
and Dehati sub-tribes abstain from both, and regard the horse as
• a tabooed animal, whom it is sin for a Musahar to touch. The Paharis,
however, eat beef when they can get it, and are only deterred from
extensive cattle-lifting by their fear of the pugnacious grazier castes.
Musahars are skilled, too, above other men in the knowledge of
forest products, and use for food a number of roots, leaves, and fruits
of wmch the ordinary Hindu knows nothing. They will not,
however, cut or injure the karhar tree, which is also held sacred by
the Cham&rs.

In Behar the bulk of the caste are field-labourers and palanquin-
bearers, and only a few have attained to the
ccopa ion. dignity of cultivating on their own account, or

have become possessed of ocoupanoy rights. Further west the hill
Musahars, described by Mr. Nesfield, “ do not even know the use
of the plough.” but burn patches of forest and raise small crops in
the ashes. Wherever the caste is found they strive to eke out the
scanty yield of their agricultural labours by a variety of semi-savage
pursuits, their heritage from more primitive modes of life. The
rearing of tasar silkworms, collecting stiok-lao, resin and gum,
making catechu, supplying Baidyas and Pansaris with indigenous
drugs, stitching leaf plates and cutting wood for sale — all these may
be reckoned among the characteristic occupations of the Musahar.
We may add the watching of fields and crops by night, which
Mr. Nesfield shrewdly connects with the notion that the Banm&nush,
or “man of the forest” (a common designation of Musahars), is
best able to propitiate the primeval deities whose ancient domain
has been invaded by the plough. An interesting parallel may be
found in Colonel Dalton’s statement that in Keonjhar, Bonai, and
other Tributary States to the south the Bhuiyas, whom I hold to be
the parent tribe from which the Musahars have sprung, “ retain in
their own hands the priestly duties of certain old shrines to the
exclusion of Brahmans.” The whole subject of the occupations
of the Musahars is discussed with the utmost thoroughness in
Mr. Nesfield’s admirable monograph.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of
Musahars in 1872 and 1881 : —

Dibtbict.

1881.

District.

1872.

1881.

Bardwan

24>Pargan&a

Mtirshedabad

Dinajpur

Ttangpur

Bogra

Darjiling

Fandpur

Maimansinh

Chittagong

Maid ah

Patna M . .„

87,208

1,091

18
888

169

189

86,884

Gya

Shahabad

:::

8aran

Chamnar&n

Mongbyr

Bhagalpur

Purniah

SantAl Pargan&s

Hazaribagn ...

LohardagR

60,896

10,117

} 83,668

6,817

26,844

112,685

69,907

20,014

10,868

4,297

16,247
13,213
f 88,655
l 66,822
6.465
88,053
128,387
79,684
31,225
18,548
8,763

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MUSALMANIA.

119

MUTEIAE-

Musalm&nid or Turk-Naua, a
sub-caste of Hajjdms in Behar
who are Mahomedans.

Musamici, a seotion of Kamdr-
kalla Sondrs in Behar.

Musatcir , a painter.

Mushahar, a subdivision of
Bhuiyas — low Bhniyas as distin-
guished from the higher Ghatwal
Bhuiyas. The former take ser-
vice, while the latter do not.

Mushrif, an honorary title of
Kayasths in Bengal.

Musipur, a group of Maghaiyd
Telia in Bengal.

Mustaufi, an honorary title of
Kdyasths in Bengal.

Musuhang, the lowland chief,
a sept of the Pheddb sub-tribe of
Limbus in Darjiling.

Mutabar, a title of Kapdlis,
signifying a headman of the
panohdyat of the caste.

Mutai, a that or sept of Ddmis
in Darjiling whose chief profes-
sion is sewing.

Muthd, a section of Kordnch
Kdndus ; a title of headman
among the Kandh tribe in
Orissa.

Muthbdri, a thar or section of
Nepdli Brahmans.

Mutri, a sept of Mundas in
Chota Nagpur.

Mutriar, a sept of Lohdrs in
Chota Nagpur.

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KABUL

120

KAGAB.

N&bik, a title of Kaibarttas.

N&d, a title of Bangaja
EAjastbe.

Nadhi&, a Bection of Go&l&s
in the North-Western Provinces
and Behar.

Nadi Samp, river snake, a
totemistio sept of Mundas in
Chota Nagpur.

Ndg, “ snake,” a totemistio
section of the Kumh&r, Koiri,
and Rajwar castes in Chota
Nagpur, the members of which
will not touch or kill a snake ; a
title of K&yasths; of the Aut
sub-caste of Qandhabaniks ; a
totemistio section of Nunias; a
family title of Kashta Baidyas;
a section of Binjhiis, Bairns,
B&ruis, Rautias ; a totemistio sept
of Ahirs, Bairdgis, Bedias,
Birhors, Chamdrs, Bhuiy&s, Khar-
w£rs, and N&gesars in Chota
Nagpur ; a section of Go&l&s and

a sept of R& jputs in Behar ; a sept
of Asuras, Gonds; a seotion of
Kah&rs, Kharias ; a section of
Chiks or Pans in Chota Nagpur ;
of Telis in Bengal ; a totemistio
section of Khandaits ; of K&m&rs
in Singbhum and the Sant&l
Pargan&s ; of Dhanuks and Dorns ;
a sub-sept of the Kisku sept of
Santals ; a title of S&nkh&ris ; a
section of M&ls in Bankura; a
sept of Bhumij, Mundas, Sautdls.
Lohars, Parhaiyas, Pators; a title
of Mayar&s in Bengal.

N&gd, Nager, Nagabds , Naga-
mahanta , (i) corruption of Nanga ,
‘naked;’ a small sect of reli-
gious mendicants, many or most
of whom have now taken to
cultivation, call themselves a
caste, and are regarded by other
people as low-oaste Brahmans ;
they take alms at srdddhs : (ii) a
title of MahdrAshtriya Brahmans.

Nagar» a section of Go&14s in
Behar.

Origin and
structure.

JWgat, a small cultivating caste of Bh£galpur and the Santil
Pargan&s. The affinities of the N6gars are
internal 0 t) SCure# They have lost their original sections,
and the whole caste now professes to belong to
the Kasyapa gotra , a seotion-name borrowed from the Brahmanioal
system and inoperative for the purpose of controlling intermarriage.
They are divided into five sub-castes— Jethaut, Pulauns, N&gbansi,
K&thauti& 9 Bh&tn&gar. Of these all are endogamous except the
first two, whioh have begun to intermarry within the last fifteen
years. In all the sub-castes the degrees prohibited for marriage
are defined by the formula chachera , mamerd , etc., calculated to
seven generations in the descending line.

Both infant and adult-marriage are in vogue, and polygamy
Mait . is recognized in the event of the first wife

being barren. The marriage ceremony is of
the standard low-o ste type, sindurdan being its essential portion.

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NAG- AIL

121

NAGER.

Widows may marry again by the sagai form, and are snbjeot to no
restrictions in their choice of a husband. Divorce is not permitted.
In their religious and ceremonial observances NAgars do not
. appear to depart materially from the standard

“ gloIL ordinances of popular Hinduism. They employ

Brahmans as their priests, who are received on terms of equality by
other members of the sacred order.

Their sooial status is low, and they rank just above the DosAdhs,
... with whom they will smoke, using tho same

1 m hookah. Neither Brahmans nor members of the
castes from whom Brahmans can take water will accept water from
the hands of a NAgar. Some few have risen to the position of
tenure-holders, but the large majority of the caste are ocoupanoy
or non-occupancy raiyats and landless day-labourers.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of
NAgars in 1872 and 1881 : —

District.

1872.

1881.

District.

1872.

1881.

Varshedabad

2.463

Monjthyr

7, >*76

9,784

Dinujpur

Bh&aalpur

3.998

2,284

Jalpigori

Purniah

2,863

1.030

8bab»»bad

Maldah

12,819

Darbbanga

696

473

S&nUkl Parganis

211

247

Cham pa ran

1.264

171

NAgar, a hypergamous group
of Maithil Brahmans ; in Behar
a synonym for Nat, q.v.

Nagarchi , a synonym for
DAmi in Darjiling.

Nagare-ChhutAr, a sub-caste
of Sutradhars in the SantAl Par-
ganAs.

NagariA, a section of the
BanodhiA and JaiswAr KalwArs
in Behar.

NAgasA, an eponymous section
of Karans and KhandAits in
Orissa.

NAgAsan, a mul or section of
the NaomuliA or GoriA sub-caste
of GoAlAs in Behar.

NAgasya, a section of Telis
in Chota Nagpur.

NAgbans, cobra, a totemistic
sept of Oraons in Chota Nagpur.

NAgbansi, (i) in Behar a sec-
tion of BAbhans and also of

DosAdhs and NAgars; a sept of
RAjputs ; a title of TAmbulis ; (ii)
in Chota Nagpur a sub-tribe of
pseudo-RAjputs, probablv of Dra-
vidian descent, to which the
Maharaja of Chota Nagpur
belongs ; a title of Mundas in
Chota Nagpur.

NAgbans i Munda, a sub-tribe
of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

NAgbasriAr, a section of Kur-
in is in Chota Nagpur and
Orissa.

Nag-Chhang Shakzang , a syn-
onym for Sherpa Bhotia of
Nepal.

NAgduar, a water insect, a
totemistic sept of Mundas in
Chota Nagpur.

Nagen, a sept of Limbus in
Darjiling.

Nager , a maker of stones for
rings, an occupation followed by
Manomedans.

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NAGESAR.

122

NAIAR*

JJdgtSat, Ndgaaia , Ktsan, a email Dravidian tribe of Chota
Nagpur, described by Colonel Dalton as of dark complexion, short
stature, and very ugly features. They have two sub-tribes, one of
whioh uses vermilion (stndur) in their marriage ceremony, while the
other substitutes oil. The names Sendard and Tel id have reference
to this practice. Their sections bear totemistio names which occur
among the Mundas and among many other Dravidian tribes.
According to Colonel Dalton adult-marriage is in vogue, but
matches are arranged by the parents. The standard bride-prioe is
two baskets of rice and one rupee in cash.

In Sarguja the Nagesar worship the sun with offerings of white
cocks, and sacrifice goats to Shikdria deota, but their chief god is
said to be the tiger. In Jashpur they swear by the tiger, but do not
worship him, and their chief god is Moihidhunia, to whom fowls are
offered every year and a buffalo onoe in three years. They also
recognize Darha, the village god of the Mundas, and keep the
Barhed festival like them.

Ndgeswar, a mul or section of
the Chhamulid Madhesia sub-
caste of Halwdis in Behar.

Ndgh, a mul or section of the
Ghosin sub-caste of Godlds in
Behar.

Ndgneswar, a mul or section
of the Chhamuli£ Madhesid sub-
caste of Halwdis in Behar.

Nagpurid, a sept of Birhors
in Chota Nagpur.

Ndgrd, a mul or section of the
Sdtmulia or Kishnaut sub-caste
of Godlds in Behar.

Ndgraj, a mul or section of
the Gorid sub-caste of Godlas in
Behar.

Ndgrishi, snake, a totemistio
section of the Paripdl sub-caste
of Sunris in Manbhum ; a section
of Mayaras and Subamabaniks
in Bengal.

Nagrua, a kind of mud, a
totemistio sept of Mundas in
Chota Nagpur.

Nagurid, a sept of Hos and
Santals,

Ndha, Ndhd, a title of Baruis
in Western Bengal; a title of
Bangaja Kayasths in Bengal.

Nahadid, a section of Godlds
in the North-Western Provinces
and Behar.

Nah-dik, a sub-sept of the
Pon-po sept of Dejong Lhoris
or Bhotias of the south.

Nah-pd, a rui or sept of
Sherpa Bhotias of Nepal.

Naheri, a title of Hajjdms in
Behar.

Nahlibo, he who chased his
wife, a sept of the Miakhola sub-
tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.
The story is that the wife of the
founder of the thar ran away
from him, but he caught her and
brought her back and afterwards
had a large family by her.

Nahmah-pd, a rui or sept of
the Ruichhug sub-tribe of Dejong
Lhoris or Bhotias of the south.

Ndiy a synonym for Ndpit in
Bengal and for Hajjfim in Behar.

Naia> the village priest in
the communal organization of a
village ( Sans . Nayaka), vulgarly
called laya .

Ndidr, a section of the Bahdn-
naj&ti sub-caste of Khatris in
Bengal.

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NAIGEAMI.

123

NAMBON.

NaigrAmi, a gdin of the SA-
bama gotra of BArendra Brah-
mans in Bengal.

NAik (Sans. Nay aka), leader,
a title of Acharji or astrological
Brahmans in Orissa ; of Khan-
dAits in Chota Nagpur and
Orissa ; of the DhusiA sub-caste
of ChamArs in Behar ; of Kai-
barttas in Bengal ; of ChAsAs and
Kewats in Orissa ; of MAI PahA-
riAs, RA jputs, and Telis in Behar ;
of KhariAs, BinjhiAs, GhAsis,
Chiks, Paturias, and Telis in

Chota Nagpur ; also a section of
Sunris in Behar.

NAiki-Khil, a sub-sept of the
Bansda, Hemrom, Mamdi, and
Tudu septs of SantAls.

Naimba, a ooolie class in Nepal.

Nairn ^ a woman who performs
the duties of a NaiA or village
priest.

Naitam, a sept of Gonds in
Chota Nagpur.

Naithung, a sept of Tipperahs
in the Hill Tracts of Chittagong.

a small Dravidian caste found only in BhAgalpur.
The sections of the Naiyas appear to be totemistic, and this fact,
coupled with their bearing the title PujAhA, leads me to regard them
as a caste formed by the fortuitous aggregation of a number of
NaiyAs or LayAs, priests of the aboriginal forest deities, into an endog-
amous group. Bor an instance of this prooess having taken place
under very similar conditions, see the artiole on A sub-

caste of the KAdar bears the same name, and it is perhaps owing
to this that the NaiyAs were not separately enumerated in the Census
of 1881.

NaiyA, a sub-caste of Kadars ;
a section of the KAdar caste in
Behar which intermarries with
all the other sections exoept the
Marik, HazAri, NaiyA, Kampti,
and BAre.

Nakat, a section of OswAls.

NAkhudA, a commander of a
vessel, a title of Gonrhis in
Behar.

NaknesA, a section of Madhe-
sia HalwAis in Behar.

NakutwAr, a mul of the Kau-
sika section of Maithil Brahmans
in Behar.

NalakhiA, a section of the
BiyAhut and KharidAhA KalwArs
in Behar.

NAIsi, a gain or sub-section
of Saptasati Brahmans in
Bengal.

Nal Tiyar, a sub-caste of
Tiyars in Bengal.

Nalu, a title of Bangaja
KAyasths in Bengal.

Nama , a synonym for ChandAL

NamadhAni, a title of Chan-
dAls in Eastern Bengal who live
on agriculture.

Namah, short for Nama Sud-
ra, a title of Chandals in Bengal.

NamahatA, a title of Brah;
mans and Kayasths in Bengal.

Namang-po, a rui or sept of
Dejong Lhoris, the members of
which are of a low mixed origin.

Nama Sudra , a synonym for
Chandal.

Ndmdtd, a synonym for LohArs
in Manbhum who serve as servants
to local zamindars.

NAmbochhA, a thar or sept of
Khambus in Darjiling.

Nambon, a sub-sept of the
Pon-po sept of Dejong Lhoris or
Bhotias of the south.

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NAMDUNG.

124

NAPIT.

NAmdung, a thar or sept of
Khambus in Darjiling.

Namjali, a thar or sept of
M&ngars in Darjiling.

Nam-tsang-koba, a rut or sept
of the Bedtshan-gye sub tribe of
Dejong Lhoris or Bhotias of the
south.

NAmzingmung, a sept of Lep-
ehas in Darjiling.

NAnaksAi, a gain or sub-
section of Saptasati Brahmans in
Bengal.

Ndnakshdhi t a worshipper of
Guru NAnak, a synonym tor Sikh.

Nanda, a group of the Srotriya
sub-oaste of UtkaJ. Brahmans.

Nandan, a title of Bangaja
KAyasths.

NandanAbAsi, a gdin of the
SAndilya gotra of BArendra
Brahmans in Bengal.

Nandark, a pur or section of
SAkadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Nandbansi, a sub-oaste of
GoAlAs in the North-Western
Provinces and Behar.

Nandi f a gdin of the SAbama
gotra of RArhi Brahmans in
Bengal ; a family title of Kashta
BnidyaSy Baruis, KAyasths,
MayarAs, NApits, SAnkhAris,
Subarnabaniks, T Antis, and Tilis
in Bengal.

NAndi, a section of the BahAn-
najAti sub-oaste of Khatris in
Bengal.

NandigrAmi, a gdin of the
BharadwAja gotra of BArendra
Brahmans in Bengal.

NandkiriAr, a section of
KAyasths in Behar.

Nange&tcariy a class of mendi-
cants who go about naked.

NAngtoyAr, a section of Kur-
mis in Chota Nagpur and Orissa
who give children their first rice
naked.

NAnifi) a section of GoAlAs in
the North-Western Provinces and
Behar.

NaniAr, a section of KhariAs
in Chota Nagpur.

NanjorA, a section of BAbhans
in Behar.

NAnkAr, a section of the
Dhengar sub-caste of Gareris in
Behar.

NaomuliA or Majraut, a sub-
caste of GoAlAs in Behar.

NaorakhiA« a section of
BhojpuriA HalwAis in Behar.

NAphAk, a dugu or section
of the Koohh-Mandai in Dacca.
The name indicates the original
habitat of the group, probably a
hill or village in Assam, and now-
I a- days has no bearing upon
I marriage.

the barber caste of Bengal, descended, according to one
opinion, from a Kshatriya father and Sudra
ngUL mother, and according to ParAsara from a Kuveri

father and a PattikAr mother. Some, again, ascribe the origin of the
caste to an act of special creation on the part of Siva, undertaken to
provide for the cutting of his wife’s nails. Several different versions
of this myth are current, all of which are too ohildish to be worth
quoting here. The caste is clearly a functional group, formed in all
probability from the members of respectable castes who in different
parts of the country adopted the profession of barbers.

NApits are divided into the following sixteen sub-oastes: —
_ , - , , AnarpuriA, BAmanbane, BArendra, Uttar-

in cure. i^rhi, Dakshin-rArhi, Paschim-rArhi, Mah-

mudAbAz, SaptagrAm, SAtghariA, KhottA. There are two sub-oastes

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NAPIT.

in Noakh&li — Bhul u&-N6pit and Sundipd-Ndpit, while in the
24-ParganAs there are four — H&ld&r-Par&m&nik, Kolid-Par&-
m&nik, Hansadahd-Par&m&nik, and Mujganji-Par&m&nk. No
trustworthy tradition seems 1 to be extant regarding the origin
of these groups, but their names appear to indicate that they
are based upon territorial distinctions, and refer to the early
settlements of certain main divisions of the caste. The Uttar-r&rhi
claim to be of higher rank than the Dakshin and Pasohim-r&rhi,
and support their olaim by the foolish tale that one of their ancestors
was so skilful an operator that he used to shave the Raja of Nadiya
without waking him. In recognition of his services he received
a large grant of land, with the injunction that neither he nor his
descendants should touch the feet of a woman or of a man of low
caste. The three R6rhi sub-castes have Kulins and Mauliks
among them ; but these divisions are not striotly hypergamous, and
a Maulik man may marry a Kulin woman, an arrangement wholly
impossible among the castes which regularly praotise Kulinism.
Anarpurid N&pits do not practise the profession of the oaste, but make
their living by trade, medicine, and all kinds of olerical work. Many
of them are employed as ndibs and muharrirs in the management
of landed property. The sections, which are shown in Appendix I,
have for the most part been borrowed from the Brahmans ; and the
exceptions to this rule observed among Mahmud&b&z Ndpits throw
no light upon the origin of the caste as a whole. The theory is
that a man may not marry a woman of his own gotra ; but this
prohibition appears not to be very striotly observed, and marriage
is regulated for the moBt part by counting prohibited degrees.

Girls are married as infants between the ages of from six to ten

Marriage. IT*' • A P r °[ e8s ^“ al matchmaker (ghatak)

belonging to the Napit caste, or one of the
friends of the bridegroom’s family, finds out a suitable match and
carries on the preliminary negotiations. A formal visit is then
paid by the bridegroom’s people for the purpose of seeing the
bride and settling the important question of bride-price (pan),
the amount of which is supposed never to be less than Rs. 100, while
it may rise as high as Rs. 200 or Rs. 250. The guardians of the
bride also visit and inspeot the bridegroom. On these occasions small
presents of betel-leaves, areca nuts, fresh fish, milk, etc., are exchanged.
The amount of pan having been agreed to, the guardians of the
bridegroom bestow their blessing ( dsirbad ) on the bride and present
her with some article of jewellery. Her people do the same for the
bridegroom and give him a few rupees. The date of the wedding
is then fixed, and an instalment of the pan is paid.

Two days before the bridegroom himself, and the bride through
her guardians, perform nandimukh sraddh for the propitiation of their
ancestors. This is followed on the next day by adhibds , when the
bridegroom, copiously anoiuted with turmeric and mustard oil, wear-
ing new clothes, and having his right wrist bound round with cotton
and blades of grass, sits on a wooden seat, while a basket containing

1 Some authorities regard the MadhonApit as a sub- caste of barbers. This
opinion, however, rests merely on an obscure tradition, and I have preferred to
treat them as a separate caste.

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126

five sauoers (pradip) for burning oil, five lumps of coloured earth,
a looking-glass, a small wooden box ( kotud ), some vermilion,
turmeric, paddy, and grass is carried seven times round him by a
married woman whose husband is alive. The basket, with the
things in it, is carefully kept that it may be taken next day to
the bride’s house.

On the wedding day the bridegroom is seven times rubbed with
mustard oil and turmeric, and after bathing is dressed in a red
silk wrapper. Towards evening he is taken in a palanquin with
much disoordant music to the bride’s house, where the women of
the family receive him and carry the basket already referred to
round him seven times, touching him with it on the forehead at
each turn, and crying ulu ulu for good luck.

The bride and bridegroom, both dressed in red silk, are then
conducted to the chhdya-mandap or oeremonial oanopy, which is set
up in the courtyard. A sketch plan of this, showing approximately
the relative positions of the chief parties to the ceremony, is given
below : —

a Vessels of water covered with mango boughs.

b Tall shoots of bamboo drawn together at the top, so as to meet over
the central water vessel.

c — c Lines of cotton thread joining the bamboos at about five feet from
the ground.

m a Plantain stems fixed in the ground.
d The bridegroom, facing east.
e The bride, facing west.

/ The bride’s father, facing north.
g The priest.

h The barber, facing the bride and pronouncing the Gaur-vachana discourse.

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127

jmrr.

The leading persons being placed as shown above, the priest
dictates certain mantras or sacred texts, whioh are repeated by the
bridegroom, the bride, and her father in turn, while the bride places
her hands, palm downward, on the palms of the bridegroom, where
a silver coin or some small fruit has been previously plaoed. This
joining of the hands completes the oeremony, and it remains only
for the barber to repeat to the wedded pair Gaur-vachana y an
admonitory discourse about the marriage of Siva and P&rvati, having
for its moral the duty of submitting to one another and of bearing
with each other's infirmities of temper. The bride and bridegroom
are then taken to the basarghar , l a room in the house where they
spend the night in the oompany of a number of young married
women, friends of the family, who enjoy the privilege of tormenting
the bridegroom with all manner of small witticisms and practical
jokes. Early next morning the bride is taken in prooession to the
bridegroom's house, where she stays for a week and consummation
usually takes place. At the end of that time she returns to her
father's house and stays there until finally fetohed by the bridegroom
a year or so afterwards.

Polygamy is permitted, and there seems to be no theoretical
limit to the number of wives a man may have. In practice, however,
most people content themselves with one. Divoroe is allowed on the
ground of unchastity with the sanction of the panohdyat, a powerful
and well-organized body, who summon both husband and wife before
them and inquire into the faots. If the panoh&yat decline to grant
a divoroe their orders are enforced, and the husband compelled to
take his wife back by the penalty of exoommunication.

Most N&pita are Yaishnavas, and comparatively few Siktas or
. Saivas are found among the caste. They

Ugion ‘ employ Brahmans as priests, who are received

on equal terms by other members of the sacred order. The dead
are burned, and eraddh performed in the orthodox fashion on the
thirty-first day after deatn.

The social standing of the caste is high. They are included

a . . . . in the standard couplet of Par&sara defining

8 the Nabas&kh group, and Brahmans will take

water from their hands. Their own rules regarding diet are the
same as are followed by most respectable Hindus. Yaishnava N&pits
do not eat flesh, but as a rule allow themselves fish, except the
ndnen , gharud pdngurd , baghdr , and gajdr. Some, however, affect
special purity by abstaining from all kinds of animal food. S&ktas,
on the other hand, may take mutton and the flesh of goats whioh
have been sacrificed. Indulgence in spirituous or fermented liquors
is supposed to be prohibited, but in praotice this question seems to
depend more upon individual tastes than upon any general rule.

In Bengal, as elsewhere in India, the barber is an indispensable
member of the village community, and the
on * offioe often desoends from father to son, carrying

with it in some oases a small allotment of servioe land, held rent-free

1 For a description of a typical scene in the B&sarghar, see pp. 95 jBE of
Bengal Peasant Life by the Key. L&l Behari Day.

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128

or at a low quit-rent. In laree towns they work independently, and
there is no regulation against their following their oooupation wherever
they like. As a rule, the working classes only shave every eight
days, but the higher ranks do so every four, sometimes every second
day. For shaving every four days, eight annas a month is usually
charged, and for a single shave one paisa , which also includes the
charge for ear-cleaning, nailparing, shampooing, and oracking
each joint of the body. In the houses of the rioh the barbership is
often a hereditary post, as is that of the purohit, dhobi, and dii,
while he, like them, has free access to all parts of the house during
the day. The barber pares the nails of Hindu females as well as
males, and his presence is required at all domestio occurrences. The
day a child is born he pares the mother’s nails, and returns on the
ninth and thirtieth days to repeat the operation. At the houses of
Muhamadans he is only present on the sixth day, the chhathi.
For these services he is given pulse, rice, oil, salt, turmeric, and two
paisd y the rich generally adding a piece of cloth and a rupee. At
marriages, as has been mentioned above, his presence is essential, and
for some castes he performs the functions of a priest. His wife,
unlike the Hajj&min of Behar and Upper India, has usually no
occupation in Bengal, but the women of the Saptagr&mi sub-caste are
employed as female barbers.

In addition to all these vocations, the barber, like his European
namesake of the seventeenth century, practises surgery, opening boils
and abscesses, inoculating for small-pox, and prescribing in all forms
of venereal disease. Often be is also an exorciser of devils, and is
called in to cure convulsions in newly-born children by Jhama-
phunkndy or muttering spells and making passes with a nim branch.
When a member of the N&pit caste wishes to study medioine, he is
associated with a Kabir&j, who is then called Adhydpaka, or tutor.
The pupil is not bound as an apprentice, but he must obey his master
as implicitly as the disciple his guru. He compounds salves and
simples, and daily reoeives instruction from his teacher. The Napits
who praotise inoculation for small-pox are generally most reckless,
spreading the disease without the slightest consideration for the
unprotected. They possess a text-book, Yasanta-tikd, but few
study it.

Nipits have the reputation of being thrifty and very acute, and
many plying their trade in one of the large towns hold land in the
oountry, which is sublet to others. Those who practise medioine
often amass considerable wealth and attain great influence in rural
society. Others, again, make a living by trade ; some few have found
their way in Government service and the legal profession; while
many devote themselves to agriculture as tenure-holders or ocou-
panoy raiyats, rising in rare cases to the position of zamindars. A
N&pit, however, will on no account till the soil with his own hands
or earn his living by fishing, nor will he, like the Hajjdm of Behar,
accept domestio service in the houses of low- caste men. In Eastern
Bengal he poses as a olean Stfdra, condescending to shave Europeans
and Muhamadans, but refusing to have anything to do with the
Chandil, Bhuinm&lf, and castes of similar standing. He will shave

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NAPIT.

129

NAB.

a Sunri, but will sot pare his nails, and will not attend at the
wedding of any but the elean Sridras.

Although the Bengal N6pits, unlike the barber-surgeon of the
Middle Ages in Europe, does nis work more or less in the open air,
and has no shop where idlers lounge and the plethorio are bled, he
enioys much the same reputation for loquacity and spreading scan-
dal. Constant observation of his neighbours gives him remarkable
insight into the character of all ranks in Hindu society. His expe-
rience takes a wider range than that of the average villager, and
renders him by comparison a man of the world, full of anecdote and
repartee, and often gifted with a talent for debate which enables him
to take a prominent part in the affairs of the community. The secrets
of many households are known to him, and, if rumour is to be believed,
he plays the go-between in many an intrigue. N&pits are very
clannish, and an insult reoeived by one is resented by the whole body ;
while melancholy indeed is the fate of a Hindu who offends his
barber. The whole dal or union of the village will refuse to shave
him, and at last, driven to desperation, he is glad, by the payment
of an exorbitant fee, to be restored to tbeir good graces.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of
N4pits in 1872 and 1881

District.

1872.

1881.

Disthict.

1872.

1881.

Bardwan

Bankura

Birbhum

Midnapur

Hughlf ...

Howrah

24-P&rgan4s

Nadiya

Khulna

Jessore

Morehedahad ...

Dinajpur

Bajshahye

Bangpur

Bogra

Fabna |

26,092

7,428

7.746

42,249

j 22,287
86,660
21,667

29,060

16,067

11,658

7,949

18,726

8,854

10,628

17,897
12,222
8,194
46,989
( 18,987
l 11,454
21,808
19,449
16,289
26,002
13,469
12,206
8,465
12,940
8,917
11,686

Darjiling

Jalpigon

Kuch Bebar

Dacca

Faridpur

Bakarganj

Maimansinh

Tipperah

Chittagong

Noakhali

Hill Tracts ...

Furnimh

Maids h

SantAl Pargan&s

Singbhnm

Manbhum

436

2,506

18,208

12,685

40,044

19,875

21,642

16,697

10,528

‘*6,357

**M75

18,604

880

4,884

8,048

21,715

18,897

88,486

82,768

22,206

15,400

12,671

104

7,864

14,673

1,423

15,174

Ndpit, a synonym for Bhanddri.

Nat, Nartak, Ndtak, a dancing and musician caste of
Eastern Bengal, whom Dr. Wise identifies with the Brahmanioal
Kathak of Hindustan, mainly on the strength of a tradition that
they first came to Dacca in the days of the Nawabs. Another theory
of their origin makes them out to be the same as the Nuri who
manufacture lac bracelets. Ward mentions that in his day none
of the caste were to be found in Bengal, and that the Brahmans
trace their desoent from a Mdl&kar and a female §fidra. The modern
Natas, not satisfied with this pedigree, claim to be the offspring
of Bharadwaja Muni and a dancing girl, and assert that the Qanak
Brahmans are sprung from a son of the same holy man, so the Nars
of Bikrampur affect to trace their origin to a dancer banished from
Indra’s heaven and condemned to follow his profession on earth. In

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130

NABAUNE-TEGHBA.

Hindustan the Kathaks still wear the Brahmanieal cord and oonfer
the Asfr-bad, or benediction, on §udraa ; but in Bengal the Nars no
longer do so, as the original settlers, being few in number, were
obliged to take wives from mean oastes, and beoame degraded.
Although the Nar caste requires to support a Brahman of its own, the
Stidra Napit and Dhobi work for it. The Nars have one gotra, the
Bharadwija, and their patronymics are Nandi and Bhakta, by whieh
latter title the oaste is sometimes known, but whenever an indi-
vidual excels in musio, he is dignified by the title UsUd. Like
other Sudras, the Nars oelebrate the srdddha on the thirtieth day,
are generally Vaishnavas in creed, and have a 'Patit Brahman to
officiate to them. They decline to play in the houses of the Ghandils,
Bhuinmalis, and other low castes, and as their services are no longer
required, have ceased to perform before Muhamadans. The Hindu
Nar occupies a position corresponding to that of the Muhamadan
Bijunia, but the former is more sought after, as no Hindu will have
a Muhamadan musician in his house if he can possibly avoid it.

When young the Nar boys, then called Bhagtiyis, are taught
danoing, but on reaching manhood they become musicians, or
Sampardi, and attend on dancing girls (Bai), who are usually Muha-
madans. If they have no ear for musio, they become cultivators or
shop-keepers. In former days no Hindu girls ever danced in public,
although dancers among the Bazi-gar and other vagrant tribes were
oommon, but at present Baistabis and Hindu prostitutes are found
among professional Nach girls. There has been a tendency within
the last thirty years for the Nar caste to separate into two classes —
one teaching boys to dance and playing to them, the other attending
the Muhamadan Bai. The latter class are the better paid and more
skilful musicians, and a band (Sampardai) accompanying a popular
dancing girl often earn as much as twenty rupees a night, while the
former consider they are well paid if they get five rupees for one
night’s amusement. The musical instruments generally used by the
Na^s are the Sarungi, Behla and Kiel varieties of fiddles, the Tabli
or drum, and the Manjira or cymbals. Nars treat their instruments
with great veneration, and always, on first rising in the morning,
make obeisanoe before them. On the §ri Panchami in Magh, sacred
to Saraswati, a Nar will not play a note until the worship of the
goddess is finished. Like the ftishi women, the Nar women will not
play, sing, or danoe in public, although at marriages of their own
people they still do so.

It is currently believed that many Nars have of late years
become Muhamadans, but this accusation is denied by the oaste.
It is nevertheless true that when a Samparda falls in love with
a dancing girl, his only chance of marrying her is by becoming
a Muhamadan.

Naradw&r, a seotion of Bib-
bans in Behar.

NarangbaSi, a section of the
Karan sub-caste of Kiyasths in
Behar.

Nara-Sundar, a title of NA-
pits in Bengal.

Naraune-TegluA, a mul of the
Pari sara section of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar.

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NAEAUNE-SAZTAEAPUB.

131

NAUBIYA.

Naraune-Saktdrdpur, a mul
of the Pardsar section of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar.

Narauni, (i) a mul or section
of the Tinmulid, Madhesid, and
Bhojpurid sub-castes of Halwdis
in Behar ; (ii) a sept of Chandra-
bansi Rdjputs.

Ndrbd, a section of Murmis in
Darjiling.

Nardauchhd, a thar or sept of
Khambus in Darjiling.

Narhan 9 a dih or exogam-
ous section of the Gharbdit sub-
oaste of Arndts in Behar.

Narhatidr, a seotion of Kdy-
asths in Behar.

Ndri, a low class of people
who make lac bracelets. Occ.

Ndrik&td, cutters of the navel-
string, a sub -caste of Haris., The
men cultivate and the women
act as nurses {dhdi ) .

Ndri-tepd, pulse-feeler, a title
of Baidyas used by outsiders.

Nariyd, a mel or hypergamous
sub-group of Rdrhi Brahmans in
Bengal.

Narjendre, a sept of the Agnid
sub-tribe of Meohes in the Dar-
jiling Terai.

Nartorod, a sub-caste of Kor-
wds in Ghota Nagpur.

Narwdre-Rdmpur, a mul of
the Kdsyapa section of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar.

Naskar v a title of Brahmans,
Kayaeths, and Kaibarttas in
BengaL

Naskarpurd, a seotion of
Pdtnis in Bengal.

Natabaidya, a synonym for
Nat.

Natanya, a section of Kumhdrs
in Singbhum.

Nath, (i) a lord ; master ; a title,
perhaps ironical of, and a syno-
nym for, the Jugi caste in
Bengal, (ii) A title of Dakshin-
Rarhi and Bangaja Kdyasths
and Subarnabaniks in Bengal.
Intermarriage is prohibited within
the title, (iii) A section of the
Orissa Brahmans, (iv) A title
of Binjhids.

Ndthdn, a sub-caste of Bdruis
in Bengal.

Ndthji, a title of Jugis in
Bengal.

Nathur, a title of Rdjputs in
Singbhum.

NaUy Naua, a synonym for
Ndpit in Bengal and for Hajjdm
in Behar.

Naud, a sub-tribe of Thdrus
in Nepal.

Naudkuri, a seotion of Kurmis
in Chota Nagpur and Orissa.

Nauhatta, a sub-caste of

Beldars in Behar.

a Nepal oaste
who work as oarpenters.

Nau-ldkh Khambu , a synonym
for Khambu.

Nauli -Karan, a sub-caste of
Karans in Orissa.

Nauniydr, a synonym or

variant lor Raunidr, which is
a sub-caste of Eaniyas in

Behar.

Nauriyd, a section of the
Bansphor sub-caste of Dorns in
Behar.

i 2

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NAUTANA.

132

NIDBALL

Nautana, a sub-caste of Kum-
hdrs in Jessore.

Nauthni, a sept of Chandra-
bansi Bijputs in JBehar.

Navadwip, a samaj or local

? roup of the Bharadwdja gotra of
dsohdtya Baidik Brahmans in
Nadiya.

Nawalpurid, a sept of the
Bautdr sub-tribe of Thdrus in
Behar.

Naya y priests (worshippers of
the titular deity) of Santdls,
Bhuiyas, Mauliks, Raj wars, etc.

Ndyd, a synonym for Maulik.

Ndydri, a gdin of the S&barna
gotra of Rdrhi Brahmans in
Bengal.

Nech&hli, a thar or sept of
Khambus in Darjiling.

Nedhuri, a gdin of the S&barna
gotra of Bdrendra Brahmans in
Bengal.

Nekdri, Nikari , a synonym
for Machhua, q.c.

Neki, a section of Murmis in
Darjiling.

Nekutwdr-Barahi, a mul of
the Kausik seotion of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar.

Nembang, the swollen one, a
sept of the Charkhola sub -tribe
of Limbus in Darjiling.

Nembong, a sub-sept of the
Phejom sept of Limbus in Dar-
jiling.

Nenijor, a section of the
Satmulia Maghayd sub-caste of
Kind us in Behar.

Neogi, an honorary title of
Brahmans, Kayasths, Sadgops,
etc., in Bengal.

Neopdni, Nivipdnya, a thar
of the Kaundin gotra of Nepdli
Br ahmans .

Nepdli, a sub-caste of Brah-
mans in Nepal.

Nepdli yd, a thar of the
Dharta-Kausik gotra of Nepili
Brahmans.

Neprd, a section of the Sit-
mulid Maghayd sub-caste of
Kandus in Behar.

Nermdh, a sept of Limbus in
Darjiling.

Nesur, a section of Murmis in
Daqiling.

Netrid, a section of Kdmdrs
in Singbhum and the Santdl
Farganis.

Neul, weasel, a totemistio
section of Jagannathi Kumhdrs
in Orissa.

Neurddarvesh, Ndradarvesh,
Neurajati, Narajati % a title of a
sect of Yaishnavas who shave
their heads.

Newra v mongoose, a totemis-
tio sept of Chiks in Chota Nag-
pur.

Nidli, a section of Kaibarttas
in Orissa.

Nich Kurmi, a sub-caste of
Kurmis in Chota Nagpur who
marry their daughters as adults
and permit sexual license before
marriage.

Nichondia, a sub-caste of
Baniyds in Behar.

Nidrdli, a gdin of the Bdtsya
gotra of Bdrendra Brahmans in
Bengal.

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NIGAM.

133

IUBABIL.

_ N igam, a sub-caste of lIAyasths
in Behar.

NigAniA, a section of GoAlAs
in the North-Western Provinces
and Behar.

N igham, a mul or section of
the KanaujiA sub-caste of Sonars
in Behar.

Nij, a sub-sept of all the septs
of SantAls.

Nikari, a giin of the SAbama
gotra of BArendra Brahmans in
Bengal.

NikAri, Nikiri t Hindu fish-
mongers, who do not catch fish
themselves, but obtain their
supplies on a system of advances
from the regular fishing castes.
Mahomedans who follow the same
avocation are oalled MeohuA, q.v.

Nikhar, a sub-caste of Gareris
in Behar.

Nikharbans, a sept of Chiks
in Chota Nagpur.

Nikhati, a gain of the Bharad-
w&ja gotra of Birendra Brah-
mans in Bengal.

Nikitia-Kandh, a sub-tribe of
Kandhs in Orissa.

Niktaw&r, Nikutw&r, a seo-
tion of B&bhans in Behar.

Nikthd, a section of the Bano-
dhid and Jaiswir Kalwdrs in
Behar.

Nikum, a section of Godlds
in the North-Western Provinces
and Behar.

Nikumbh, a sept of the Suraj-
bansi division of Bfijputs in
Behar.

Nilu&» a sub-oaste of Jugis in
Northern Bengal whose special
business it is to dye in blue.

Nim&chandpurd, a mul or
section of the Naomulia or
Mairaut sub-caste of Godlds in
Behar.

Nimdi, a family of the Kulin
group of Jugis in Bengal.

Nimak, salt, a totemistio sept
of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Nim&mbaunchhd, a that or
sept of Khambus in Daijiling.

Nimandih, a section of Kdy-
asths in Behar.

Nimavat, a sect of Vaishna-
vas.

Nimri» a sept of Bdjputs in
Behar.

Nimuani, a sept of Chiks in
Chota Nagpur.

Nimundihi a sept of the Sur-
yabansi Hi j puts in Behar.

Ninauchhd, a thar or sept of
Khambus in Darjiling.

Ninglehku, one who outs
poisonous plants, a sept of the
rheddb suo-tribe of Limbus in
Darjiling.

Ninhi&m, a mul or section of
the Chhamulid Madhesia sub-
caste of Halwdis in Behar.

Niparia, a mul or section of
the Kanaujii sub-caste of Haj-
jams in Benar.

Nir, a sub-oaste of Tdntis in
Bengal.

Nirdbil, a pathi or hypergam-
ous sub-^roup of Bdrendra
Brahmans in BengaL

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NIBBAN.

134

NUNHAR.

NirbAn, a section of GoAlAs in
the North- Western Provinoes
and Behar.

Nirbhaya, a title of Sunris in
Bengal

Nirola, a thar or seotion of
NepAli Brahmans.

NisAn, a sept of the Chan-
drabansi division of RAjputs in
Behar.

Nisank v a group of the Srotriya
sub-caste of TJtkal Brahmans.

Ni*M } a synonym for Muohi.

Niskalanka, a seotion of Telis
in Bengal.

Niti Sin A, a sub-caste of
DhobAs in Central Bengal.

NiyArishi, a seotion of Telis.

Ney&ri, Niyariyd,
Niyardhoa y a low oaste who
sift and wash the ashes and
refuse of goldsmiths’ shops
for the scraps of precious metal
which may be reoovered by this
process.

NobAiAre, a sept of the AgniA
sub-tribe of Meches in the Dar-
jiling Terai.

Nobonapuria, a section of the
Kamar sub-caste of DosAdhs in
Behar. ,

NodA, a sub-caste of BAgdis
found in the 24-ParganAs and
Hughli, said to have oome from
Bankura.

N ogo, a sept of Limbus in I
Darjiling.

Nohdry a variant of LohAr.

NoinjorA, a seotion of SonArs
in Behar.

Nois f a sept of Mundas in
Chota Nagpur.

Nolka, a section of OswAls in
Behar.

Nomahang, a thar or sept of
Khambus in Darjiling.

NonaitwAr v a mul of the
SAndil section of Maithil Brah-
mans, and a kul or section of
Babhans in Behar.

Noniyany a synonym for NuniA.

NonoAr, a section of GorAits
in Chota Nagpur.

Non-pAi a rui or sept of
Sherpa Bhotias of Nepal

NowattiA, a sept of Tipperahs
| in the Hill Tracts of Chittagong.

Nrisingha, a section of Gan-
dhabaniks in Bengal.

NunAon, a section of the BiyA-
hut and KharidAhA KalwArs in
Behar.

Nun-Bind, a sub-oaste of
Binds in Eastern Bengal.

Nuneswar, a seotion of the
BiyAhut and KharidAhA Kal-
wArs in Behar.

NunetwAr, a muloi the SAndil
section of Maithil Brahmans in
Behar.

Nungolidy a synonym for Nunia.

Nunhar, a section of the BiyA-
hut and KharidAhA KalwArs in
Behar.

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135

KUNIA.

Nonit/dtiy a Dravidian caste of Beh&r and Upper
Qri . India engaged in cultivation, saltpetre-making,

0ngm * and various kinds of earthwork. The caste

seem to have no traditions except of a silly story that the Awadhia
are descended from an ascetic named Bidur Bhakat, who broke his
fast on salt earth, and being thereby disqualified for the higher life
of meditation, was condemned by Bam Chandra to betake himself
to the manufacture of saltpetre. This throws small light on the
origin of the Nunias. It seems, however, to be generally believed
that they are closely connected with the Binds and the Beldars,
and I venture the conjeoture that the Binds may be the modem
representatives of an aboriginal tribe from whioh the Nunias have
branohed off as saltpetre-makers and the Beld&rs as earth-workers.
All three groups are now endogamous. The hunting and fishing
proclivities of the Binds seem to suggest that they are the oldest of
the three, while the totemistio sections of the Nunias stamp them as
Dravidian. The Beldars are probably a more reoent offshoot, but
the faot that the name Beldir (mattock-bearer) is assumed by
members of any caste when employed on earthwork renders it
difficult to determine their precise affinities. The Nuniifl of Behar

_ . , , are divided into seven sub-castes -Awa-

re ' dhi& or Ayodhiab&8i,Bhojpuri&, Khar&ont,
Maghay&, Orh, Pacha inyd or Chauh&n, and Semarw&r. Their
sections, whioh are given in Appendix I, appear to be for the most
part totemistio. A man may not marry a woman belonging to
his own section, but no other sections are barred to him ; and the
rule of simple exogamy is supplemented by the standard formula
mamerdy chachera, etc., already quoted. It deserves notioe that
intermarriage in the chachera line is forbidden as long as any
relationship oan be traced, while in the other three lines the
prohibition only extends to three or, as some say, to five generations.
All Nuni&s who oan afford to do so marry their daughters as
infants, adult-marriages being considered unfashionable, if not dis-
reputable. Polygamy is permitted, but it is unusual to find a man
with more than two wives; and I gather, although there is no
distinct rule on the subject, that practioe is held to be justified only
by the necessity of procuring offspring. Widows are allowed to
marry again by the sagai form, and are subject to no restrictions
in their choice of a second husband exoept those arising from
consanguinity. It is considered, however, right for a widow to marry
her deceased husband’s younger brother. Divorce is effeoted on
grounds of adultery or incompatibility of temper by the order
of the caste council (panohiyat). A divorced woman may marry again
by the sagai form unless she has gone wrong with a man of another
caste— an offence which entails summary expulsion.

Tirhutia Brahmans serve the Nuni&s as priests, and officiate
at their marriages. The marriage oeremony is
^ ama * e * of the standard type. The bridegroom-prioe

{tilak) is fixed by custom at a sum varying from Be. I to Bs. 5

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136

and a pair of dhotis. After the marriage the bride does not go with
the bardt to her husband’s house, but stays with her parents until she
attains puberty, when her husband goes to fetch her with a few
of his friends and brings her home in prooession (dira gawau).
Consummation is not effected until after this oeremony. Awadhiya
Nunids have a curious custom called dsmaui shddi , which requires
that the bride and bridegroom shall be held off the ground during
the marriage oeremony.

In matters of religion the Nunias follow the ordinary forms of
_ . Hinduism current in Behar. Most of them

gl0n * are Saktas, and there are said to be compara-

tively few Vaishnavas in the caste. Bhagavatiji is their favourite
goddess. Bandi, Goraiya, and Sitala are worshipped on Tuesdays,
Wednesdays, and Saturdays. There are no deities specially wor-
shipped by women and children, but women take part in the worship
of Sitald. Sannyasi fakirs are the gurus of the caste. The dead
are burned, and sraddh performed on the thirteenth day after
death. The ashes are thrown into any river that may be handy.
The bodies of children dying under five years of age are buried —
a point wherein Nunias depart from the usual custom, which is to
bury after eighteen months.

The oaste believe the extraction of salt and saltpetre from saline
^ earth to be their original occupation, and it is

upa on. possible, as has been suggested above, that

they may have brokeii off from the Binds by reason of their adopting
this profession. At the present day we find them also employed in
road-making, tank-digging, well-sinking, building and thatching
houses, and all kinds of agricultural field labour. Many of them
also hold lands of their own, and a few have gained a more secure
position as occupancy raiyats. Nunids who have no land often
wander about during the dry season in search of work, and build
small grass huts for temporary shelter. None of them are artisans.
In Bengal, acoording to Dr. Wise, Nunias readily obtain servioe
with Godlas or other clean Sudras, but refuse to work as labourers
or domestio servants with low-caste families. The social standing
of Nunias seems to vary in different parts, and does not admit of
very precise definition. In Patna, Mozufferpur, and parts of
Monghyr they rank with Kurmis, Koiris,
U8 ‘ Kumhars, etc., and Brahmans will take water
and oertain kinds of sweetmeats from their hands. In Bhagalpur,
Pumiah, Champarun, Shahabad, and Gya they are placed on the
same level as Tantis, and none of the higher castes will take water
from them. In addition to the various lands of food that are lawful
for Hindus of the middle class, Nunids eat field-rats and pork, and
drink fermented and spirituous liquors. It is significant of the
Nunids’ point of view in suoh matters that they think little of
Bhakats, who practise small forms of asceticism by abstaining from
certain kinds of food and drink ; and I am informed that very few
Bhakats are found among them.

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NUIHA.

137

NTJEL

The following statement shows the number and distribution of
Nunias in 1872 and 1881

District.

1872.

1881.

District.

1872.

1881.

Bard wan ... ». ...

Bank ura

Birbhum

Midnapur .*•

Hughli

24-Pargania ...

Nadiya

Murtnedabad

Dinajpnr

Rajsnahye

Bangpur ~

Bom

Pftbuft ••• ••• •••

Darjiling

Jalpigon

Koch Behar

Maimanginh

Maldah

......

4,607

461

1,886

1,865

287

862

275

702

2,218

844

:: i ::::::: i : i ::::: :

iJliiliiilillli

10,816

14,916

18,188

} 09,242

66.854

86,102

9,218

8,436

971

847

278

2,685

228

18,240
16,608
18.606
f 41,616
l 27,776
68^68
46,314
9,860
7,877
1,984
1,662

{-1

2,316

4,116

58S

* The figure* ire Included with " other labouring outee."

Nuni&r, a subdivision of
Baniyas who deal in saltpetre.

Nuniy&r, a seotion of K£y-
asths in Behar.

Nunkharid, a section of the
Biy&hut and Kharid&h& KalwArs
in Behar.

Nuri, a title of Joldhas in
Behar who make lao bracelets,
dye for the lips, eto. ; the same
as Churih&r and Laheri. A
Bengal caste of jewellers and
lac-workers said to have been
brought from Orissa by one of
the Rajas of Krishnagar.

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OAJRI.

138

ORXON.

Oari f a seotion of the Karan
sub-caste of K&yasths in Behar.

Oaria, verandah, a totemistio
sept of Mundas in Chota
Nagpur.

O bars Sri, a totemistio sept
of the Bhumij tribe in Ghota
Nagpur.

Obung-gyakpa, the dweller
above the fountain, a sept of the
Phed&b sub-tribe of Lim bus in
Darjiling.

Odania, a territorial seotion of
Binds in Behar.

Odhalaba, fox, a tote mis tio
sept of JuSngs in Orissa.

Oh-Ar, a sept of the Chandra-
bansi R&jputs in Behar.

Ohddr, a title of KhandSits
and Kharwdrs in Chota Nagpur.

Oinw&r, a mul of the KSsyapa
seotion of Maithil Brahmans in
Behar.

OjhS, a group of the Adi-Gaura
sub-oaste of Oaura Brahmans ; a
title of BSbhans; a seotion of
the Pargah caste in Behar.

Ojh£, Ujh£, or dh£, a title
of Maithil Brahmans in Behar.

Ojhaiyfi, a sept of the BautAr
sub-tribe of ThArus in Behar.

Okinw&r, a kul or seotion of
Babhans in Behar.

Okrabo, a sept of the Ph£gu
sub-tribe of Yakhas in Darji-
ling.

Olingthopa, a seotion of
Mangars in Daqiling.

Om, a title of Dakshin-B&rhi
KAyasths in Bengal.

On-chhombo, the horse-seller,
a sept of the Tambr&khola sub-
tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Ongd&hba, a ru% or sept of
Dejong Lhoris whose anoestor
had emigrated from Bhotan.

Ongyo, a sept of the Tung-
jainya sub-tribe of Chakmds in
the Hill Tracts of Chittagong.

Onw&r, a seotion of B&bhans
in Behar.

Ophia, a sept of Parhaiyas
in Chota Nagpur.

Or, a sub-caste of Turis in
Chota Nagpur.

Or&, a sept of Maghs in the
Hill Tracts of Chittagong.

©r&3Tt, Ur don, Kunokh , Eunrukh , a Dravidian cultivating tribe
Tradition of origin. of c hot& Nagpur, classed on linguistio grounds
as Dravidian, and supposed to be olosely akin
to the Males of the R&jmah&l hills. Their traditions say that their

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139

OBAON.

original home was in the west of India, whence they came to the
Kaimtcr hills and the plateau of Rohtis in Shahabad. Driven from
Roht&s by the Muhamadans, the tribe split into two divisions.
One of these, under the Chief, followed the oourse of the Ganges,
and finally settled in the R&jmahdl hills ; while the other, led by
his younger brother, went up the Son into Palamau, and turning
eastward along the Koel took possession of the north-western
portion of the Chota Nagpur plateau. Some say that they expelled
the Mundas from this portion of the country, and forced them
to retire to their present settlements in the south of Loh&rdagA ;
but this statement is not borne out by looal tradition, nor oan it be
reconciled with the faot that the few Mundas found in the Orion
pargands on the plateau are acknowledged and looked up to as the
descendants of the founders of the villages in which they live.

The oolour of most Or&ons is the darkest brown, approaching
^ to blaok ; the hair being jet black, ooarse, and

781 ^ rather inolined to be frizzy. Projecting jaws

and teeth, thiok lips, low narrow foreheads, broad flat noses, are
the features which strike a careful observer as characteristic of the
tribe. The eyes are often bright and full, and no obliquity is
observable in the opening of the eyelids. No signs of Mongolian
affinities can be detected in the relative positions of the nasal
and malar bones, and the average naso-malar index for a hundred
Ordons measured on the system recommended by Mr. Oldfield Thomas
omes to 113*6.

“The dress of the men,” says Colonel Dalton, “oonsists of a
long narrow strip of doth carefully adjusted as
a middle garment, but m such a manner as to
leave the wearer most perfect freedom of limb, and allow the full
play of the muscles of the thigh and hip to be seen. They wear
nothing in the form of a coat; the decorated neck and chest are
undraped, displaying how the latter tapers to the waist, which the
young dandies compress within the smallest oompass. In addition
to the doth, there is always round the waist a girdle of cords made
of tasar silk or of cane. This is now a superfluity, but it is no doubt

the remnant of a more primitive oostume, perhaps the support of the
antique fig leaves. After the age of ornamentation is passed, nothing
can be more untidy or unprepossessing than the appearance of the
Orion. The ornaments are nearly all discarded, hair utterly neglect-

ed, and for raiment any rags are used. This applies both to males
and females of middle age. The ordinary dress of the women depends
somewhat on the degree of civilization, and on the part of the country
in which you make your observations . In the villages about Lohardagi,
a cloth from the waist to a little below the knee is the oommon

working dress ; but where there is more association with other races,
the persons of young females are decently dad in the coarse ootton
doth of the country, white with red border. Made-up garments are
not worn except by the converts to Christianity. The one doth, six
yards long, is gracefully adjusted so as to form a shawl and a petti-
coat. The Orsons do not, as a rule, bring the upper end or the
garment over the head, and so give it the functions also of a veil, as

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OBAON.

140

it is worn by the Bengali women ; they simply throw the end of the
dress over the left shoulder, and it falls with its fringe and ornamented
border prettily oyer the back of the figure* Vast quantities of red
beads and a large heavy brass ornament, shaped like a torque, are
worn round the neok. On the left hand are rings of oopper, as many
as oan be indued on each finger up to the first joint ; on the right hand
a smaller quantity. Bings on the seoond toe only, of brass or bell-
metal, and anklets and braoelets of the same material are also worn.
The hair is, as a rule, coarse and rather inolined to be frizzy, but by
dint of lubrication they can make it tolerably smooth and amenable ;
and false hair or some other substanoe is used to give size to the
mass (the chignon) into which it is gathered, not immediately behind,
but more or less on one side, so that it lies on the neok just behind,
and touching the right ear ; and flowers are arranged in a receptacle
made for them between the roll of hair and the head. The ears are,
as usual with suoh people, terribly mutilated for decorative purposes ;
spikes and rings are inserted into holes made in the upper cartilage,
and the lobe is widely distended. When in full dancing costume,
they add to their head-dress plumes of heron feathers, and a gay
bordered scarf is tightly bound round the upper part of the body.”

In matters of domestic economy the Ortons are a slovenly race,
_ , . , . u and their badly-built mud huts afford no
eors o ry. su £j 0 j eil j accommodation for the unmarried
members of the family. In the older Orton villages this difficulty
is provided for by a house oalled the dhumkuria, m which all the
baohelors must sleep under penalty of a fine. Where the girls
sleep is, says Colonel Dalton, “ somewhat of a mystery.” In some
villages a separate building, under the oharge of an elderly woman,
is maintained for their use ; and more oommonly they are distributed
among the widows of the village. “ But however billeted, it is well
known that they often find their way to the bachelors’ hall, and
in some villages actually sleep there.”

This curious institution is not peculiar to the Ortons. We
meet with it among the Jutogs, the Hill Bhuiyto of Keonjhur
and Bonai, and the J humid Maghs of the Chittagong Hill Tracts.
The Orton system, though already looked upon as an ancient custom,
and apparently tending to disuse in newly-formed villages, is
still very elaborate. “The Dhumkuria fraternity are under the
severest penalties bound down to secrecy in regard to all that
takes place in their dormitory; and even girls are punished if they
dare to tell tales. They are not allowed to join in the danoes
till the offenoe is oondoned. They have a regular system of fagging
in this ourious institution. The small boys serve those of larger
growth, shampoo their limbs, and comb their hair, eto., and they
are sometimes subjected to severe discipline to make men of them.”
It is difficult not to see in this a survival of more primitive modes
of life, possibly even of the initiatory oeremonies to which many
tribes of savages attach so much importance.

The internal structure of the Orton tribe is shown in a tabular

Internal structure.

form in Appendix T. The exogamous septs
are extremely numerous, and all that oan be

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141

OBAON.

identified are totemistic, the totem being taboo to the members of
the sept. The rule of exogamy in foroe is the simple one that a man
may not marry a woman of his own sept. The sept name descends
in the male line, and there is no objection to a man marrying a
woman belonging to the same sept as his mother. In addition to
this some system of prohibited degrees seems to exist among
them, though no one can state it clearly, nor is it expressed
in a definite formula. Still every Orion will admit that he can n of
marry his maternal aunt or his first cousin on the mother’s side,
though he will probably not be able to say how far these prohibitions
go in the descending line. So also no one oan marry his younger
brother’s widow or the elder sister of his deoeased wife, though
marriage with an elder brother’s widow or a deoeased wife’s younger
sister is deemed permissible.

Seventeen years ago, when Colonel Dalton published his acoount of
the Or&ons, infant-marriage is said to have
amage ’ been entirely unknown among the tribe. A

few of the wealthier men, who affect to imitate Hindu customs,

have now taken to this praotioe, and marry their daughters before
they have attained puberty. Among the mass of the people,
however, girls marry after they are grown up, and the freest
courtship prevails at dances, festivals, and sooial gatherings of
various kinds. 'Young men woo their sweethearts with offerings of
flowers for the hair and presents of grilled field-mice, “ which the
Or&ons declare to be the most delicate of food.” Sexual intercourse

before marriage is taoitly recognized, and is so generally practised
that in the opinon of the best observers on Ordon girl is a virgin at
the time of her marriage. To call this state of things immoral is to
apply a modem conception to primitive habits of life. Within the
trice indeed the idea of sexual morality seems hardly to exist, and the
unmarried Orions are not far removed from the condition of modi-

fied promiscuity whioh prevails among many of the Australian
tribes. Provided that the exogamous circle defined by the totem is
respected, an unmarried woman may bestow her favours on whom
she will. If, however, she becomes pregnant, arrangements are
made to get her married without delay, and she is then expected
to lead a virtuous life. Prostitution is unknown. Intrigues beyond
the limits of the tribe are uncommon, and are punished by summary
expulsion.

Colonel Dalton gives the following aocount of the Orion

^“^rhen a young man makes up his mind to marry, his parents
or guardians go through a form of selection for him ; but it is always
a girl that he has already selected for himself, and between whom
and him there is a perfect understanding. The parents, however,
have to arrange all preliminaries, including the price of the damsel,
whioh is sometimes as low as Rs. 4 (8s.) In the visits that are inter-
changed by the negotiators, omens are carefully observed by the
Or&ons, as by the Mundas, and there are, consequently, similar
difficulties to overoome; but when all is settled, the bridegroom
proceeds with a large party of his friends, male and female, to the

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0E10N.

142

bride’s house. Most oi the males have warlike weapons, real or
sham, and as they approaoh the village of the bride’s family the
young; men from thence emerge, also armed, as if to repel the
invasion, and a mimio fight ensues, whioh, like a dissolving view,
blends pleasantly into a dance. In this the bride and bridegroom
join, each riding on the hips of one of their friends. A bower
is oonstruoted in front of the residence of the bride’s father, into
which the bride and bridegroom are carried by women, and
made to stand on a curry-stone, under which is plaoed a sheaf
of corn, resting on a plough yoke. Here the mystery of the
sindurdan is performed ; but the operation is oarefully screened from
view, first by cloths thrown over the young couple, secondly by
a cirole of their male friends, some of whom hold up a screen cloth,
while others keep guard with weapons upraised and look very fieroe,
as if they had oeen told off to cut down intruders, and were quite
prepared to do so. In Or&on marriages the bridegroom stands on
the curry-stone behind the bride, but in order that this may not be
deemed a concession to the female, his toes are so plaoed as to tread
on her heels. The old women under the cloth are very particular
about this, as if they were specially interested in providing that the
heel of the woman should be properly bruised. Thus poised the
man stretches over the girl’s head and daubs her forehead aud crown
with the red powder sindur ; and if the girl is allowed to return the
compliment (it is a controverted point whether she should do so or
not), she performs the ceremony without turning her head, reaching
back over her own shoulder and just touching his brow. When this
is accomplished, a gun is fired ; and then, by some arrangement,
vessels full of water, placed over the bower, are capsized, and the
young couple and those who stand near them receive a drenching
shower-bath. They now retire into an apartment prepared for them,
ostensibly to change their clothes, but they do not emerge for some
time, and when they appear they are saluted as man and wife.
Danoing is kept up during their retirement, one of the performers
executing a pas seul with a basket on her head, which is said to
contain the trousseau. The Or&ons have no prescribed wedding
garments. They do not follow the Hindu custom of using saffron*
coloured robes on such occasions. The bride is attired in ordinary
habiliments, and no special pains are taken to make her lovely for
the occasion. The bridegroom is better dressed than usual. He
wears a long coat and a turban. Nor have the Or&ons any special
days or seasons for marriages. The ceremony may take plaoe in any
month of the year, but, with all natives, the hot, dry months are
generally selected if possible. There is then not muoh work on hand ;
granaries are full, and they prefer those months for marching and
camping out.”

Polygamy is permitted, and in theory at least there is no limit
to the number of wives a man may have. This luxury, however, is
but little sought after. Oraons are usually too poor to maintain
many wives, and the majority content themselves with one. WidowB
may marry again, and are subjeot to no restrictions in selecting their
second husbands. In such marriages the full ceremony is not

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OBAON.

performed: it is deemed sufficient for the female relatives of the
bridegroom to smear vermilion on the bride’s forehead and the
parting of her hair. Sometimes even this meagre form is omitted,
and a valid marriage is constituted by the mere fact* of the parties
living together. Notwithstanding this laxity of formal observance,
the children of a widow are recognized as holding equal rank with
those of a woman married by the full ritual used in a first marriage.
Divorce is readily effected at the will of either husband or wife.
The consent of the panoh&yat is not required, nor is the intention
to separate attested by any particular form. A husband turns
away his wife, or a wife runs off from her husband, and the fact
in either case is aooepted as constituting a valid divorce. If a
woman has children, her husband may be compelled to contribute
to their maintenance if he divorces the mother on any other
ground than adultery. Similarly, when a wife deserts her husband,
not on account of ill-treatment, but merely because she takes a
fancy to another man, her parents may be oalled upon to repay the
bride-price whioh they received at her marriage. Divorced wives
may marry again on the same terms and by the same form as
widows.

44 The religion of the Or&ons,” says Colonel Dalton, “ is of
a composite order. They have, no doubt,
llgi0IL retained some portion of the belief that they

brought with them to Chota Nagpur; but, coalescing with the
Mundas and joining in their festivals and acts of public worship,
they have to a certain extent adopted their ideas on religion and
blended them with their own. There is, however, a material
distinction between the religious systems of the two people. The
Mundas have no symbols and make no representations of their gods;
the Or&ons, and all the cognates whom I have met with, have
always some visible objeot of worship, though it may be but a stone
or a wooden post, or a lump of earth. Like the Mundas, they
acknowledge a Supreme God, adored as Dfaarmi or Dharmesh, the
Holy One, who is manifest in the sun ; and they regard Dharmesh as
a perfectly pure, benefioent being, who created us, and would in his

S odness and mercy preserve us, but that his benevolent designs are
parted by malignant spirits whom mortals must propitiate, as
Dharmesh cannot or does not interfere if the spirit of evil once
fastens upon us. It is therefore of no use to pray to Dharmesh
or to offer sacrifices to him ; so though acknowledged, reoognized,
and reverenced, he is neglected, whilst the malignant spirits are
adored.

“ I do not think that the Ordons have an idea that their sins are
visited on them, either in this world or in a world to come. It is
not because they are wioked that their ohildren or their cattle die,
or their crops fail, or they suffer in body ; it is only because some
malignant demon has a spite against them, or is desirous of harming
them. Their ideas of sin are limited. Thou shalt not commit
adultery, thou shalt not steal, thou shalt not bear false witness against
thy neighbour, is about as much of the Decalogue as they would sub-
scribe to. It is doubtful if they see any moral guilt in murder,

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though hundreds of them have suffered the extreme penalty of the
law for this crime. They are ready to take life on very Blight provo-
cation, and in the gratification of their revenge an innooent child
is as likely to suffer as the actual offender. There is one canon of
the Mosaioal law that they in former years rigorously enforced —
1 Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live.’ I have dwelt on this sub-
ject in treating of the Mundas. If left to themselves, the life of
elderly females would be very insecure. As it is, a suspected old
woman (and sometimes a young one, especially if she be the daughter
of a suspected old one) is occasionally condemned, well drubbed and
turned out of the village ; and she does not always survive the treat-
ment Bhe is subjected to. If we analyse the views of most of the
Orion converts to Christianity, we shall, I think, be able to discern
the influence of their pagan doctrines and superstitions in the
motives that first led them to beoome catechumens. The Supreme
Being who does not protect them from the spite of malevolent spirits
has, they are assured, the Christians under His speoial care. They
consider that, in oonsequenoe of this guardianship, the witohes
and bkiiU have no power over Christians ; and it is, therefore, good
for them to join that body. They are taught that for the salvation
of Christians one great sacrifice has been made, and they see that
those who are baptized do not in fact reduoe their live-stock to pro-
pitiate the evil spirits. They grasp at this notion ; and long after-
wards, when they understand it better, the atonement, the mystioal
washing away of sin by the blood of Chnst, is the doctrine on whioh
their simple minds most dwell. I have not found amongst the pagan
Orions a traoe of the high moral code that their cousins of the
Bijmahil hills are said to have accepted. I consider that they have
no belief whatever in a future Btate, whilst to the Rijmahilis is attri-
buted a profound system of metempsyohosis. The Orions cany
that doctrine no further than to suppose that men who are
killed by tigers beooms tigers, but for other people death means
annihilation. As the sole object of their religious oeremonies is the
propitiation of the demons, who are ever thwarting the benevolent
intentions of Dharmesh, they have no notion of a service of thanks-
giving; and so far we may regard the religion of the Mundas as
of a higher order than theirs. When suffering or misfortune befall
a man, he consults an augur, or ojhd , as to the cause of his afflic-
tion, and acts according to the advice given. The cjhd has it in his
power to denounce a mortal or a particular devil. The method
employed has been described in the aooount of the Mundas, and the
result is the same. If a fellow-being is denounced, it is said that he
has caused his familiar to possess and afflict the sufferer ; and the
person denounced is seized and tortured, or beaten, to force him to effect
the expulsion of the evil spirit. But the family or village bhut may
be aooused. The ojhd y under inspiration, of course, decides what is
to be sacrificed, and frequently ruins, if he does not cure, the patient
consulting him. In the process of propitiation, the fetish nature of
the Orion belief is shown. The Borcerer produces a small image
of mud, and on it sprinkles a few grains of rioe. If fowls are to be
the victims, they are placed in front of this image ; and if they peck

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OBAON.

at the rice, it indicates that the particular devil is satisfied with the
intention of his votaries, and the saorifioe proceeds. The flesh of
the animals killed is appropriated by the sorcerer, so it is his interest
to have a hecatomb if possible. In regard to the names and attri-
butes of the devils, the Or&ons who live with Mundas saorifioe to
Marang Buru and all the Munda Bougas. The Or&ons on the
western portion of the plateau, where there are few Mundas, ignore
the Bongas and pay their devotion to Darh&, the SamaBurhi (Lady
of the Grove), and the village bhuts, who have various names.
Chanda or Chandi is the god or goddess of the ohase, and is always
invoked preparatory to starting on great hunting expeditions. Any
bit of rook, or stone, or excrescence on a rock, serves to represent
this deity. The hill near Lodhma, known to the Mundas as Marang
Buru, is held in great reverenoe by the Or&ons. To the spirit of the
hill, whom they call Baranda, they give bullocks and buffaloes, espe-
cially propitiating him as the bhixt, who, when malignantly inclined,
frustrates God’s designs of sending rain in due season to fertilise the
earth. In some parts of the oountry Darhd is almost the only spirit
they propitiate. If fowls are offered to him, they must be of divers
colours, but once in three years he should have a sheep from his
votaries ; and once in the same period a buffalo, of which the cjhd
or pdhn gets a quarter. The Oraon must always have something
material to worship, renewed every three years. Besides this
superstitious dread of the spirits above named, the Orion’s imagin-
ation tremblingly wanders in a world of ghosts. Every rook, road,
river, and grove is haunted. He believes that women who die in
childbirth beoome ghosts, called ehorail ; and such ghosts are fre-
quently met hovering about the tombstones, always clad in robes
of white, their faces fair and lovely, but with baoks black as
charcoal, and inverted feet, that is, they walk with their heels in
front. They lay hold of passers-by and wrestle with them, and
tickle them; and he is lucky, indeed, who, thus caught, escapes
without permanent injuries.” Women who die within fifteen days
of their confinement are believed to be likely to beoome choraik ;
but this danger may be averted by offering sacrifices for the repose
of their spirits.

The Or&ons do not employ Brahmans, and their religious and
oeremonial observances are supervised by priests of their own tribe
known as Naiyas.

“ The Or&ons and Mundas keep the same festivals ; but, aooord-
FestivaU. ing* to Mr. Luther, the Karm is, with the

IT former, the most important It is oelebrated

at the season for planting out the rice grown in seed-beds, and
is observed by Hindus as well as by Kols and other tribes. On
the first day of the feast the villagers must not break their fast
till certain ceremonies have been performed. In the evening a
party of young people of both sexes proceed to the forest, and out
a young karma tree ( Nauciea parvifolia), or the branoh of one,
bearing whioh they return in triumph, — danoing, and singing, and
beating drums, — and plant it in the middle of the dkhra. After
the performance of a saorifioe to the Karma Deota by the pdhn, the

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villagers feast, and the night is passed in dancing and revelry. Next
morning all may be seen at an early hour in holiday array; the
elders in groups, under the fine old tamarind trees that surround the
Akkra , and the youth of both sexes, arm-linked in a huge circle,
danoing round the karma tree, which, festooned with garlands,
decorated with strips of coloured doth, sham bracelets and necklets
of plaited straw, and with the bright faoes and merry laughter
of the young people encircling it, reminds one of the gift-bearing
tree so often introduced at our own Christmas festival, and suggests
the probability of some remote connection between the two. Pre-
paratory to tiie festival, the daughters of the headmen of the
village cultivate blades of barley in a peculiar manner. The seed
is sown in moist, sandy soil, mixed with a quantity of turmerio,
and the blades sprout and unfold of a pale yellow or primrose
oolour. On the karma day, these blades are taken up by the
roots, as if for transplanting, and oarried in baskets by the fair
cultivators to the Akkra. They approach the karma tree, and,
prostrating themselves reverentially, place before it some of the
plants. They then go round the oompany, and, like bridesmaids
distributing wedding favours, present to each person a few of the
yellow barley blades, and all soon appear, wearing, generally in
their hair, this distinctive decoration of the festival. Then all join
merrily in the karma dances, and malignant indeed must be the
bhut who is not propitiated by so attractive a gathering. The
morning revel closes with the removal of the karma. It is taken
away by the merry throng and thrown into a stream or tank ; but
after another feast daucing and drinking are resumed. On the
following morning the effects of the two nights' dissipation are
often, I fear, very palpable. ,, Colonel Dalton notices that the karma
festival is celebrated by Hindus as well as by the aboriginal tribes,
and quotes a passage from the Bhavishya Purina, the object of
which appears to be to explain how a festival of an aboriginal people
came to be adopted by the Hindus. He also points out that the
necessity of the females of the family joining in the oeremony is an
argument against its Hindu origin.

“ The Orions have some observances during the Sarhul festival
that differ a little from those of the Mundas. Their idea is that at
this season the marriage of Dharti, the earth, is oelebrated ; and this
cannot be done till the sal trees give the flowers for the ceremony.
It takes place, then, towards the end of March or beginning of
April ; but any day whilst the sdl trees are in blossom will answer.
On the day fixed the villagers accompany their pahn to the sama y
the sacred grove, a remnant of the old sdl forest, in which the
Ordons locate a popular deity, called the Sama Burhi, or woman of
the grove, corresponding with the Jahir Era and Desauli of the
Mundas. To this dryad, who is supposed to have great influence
on the rain (a superstition not unlikely to have been founded on the
importance of trees as oloud-compellers), the pdhn y arriving with
his party at the grove, offers five fowls. These are afterwards
cooked with rice, and a small quantity of the food is given to each
person present. They then collect a quantity of sdl flowers and

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ORXON.

return laden with them to the village. Next day the pdhn , with
some of the males of the village, pays a visit to every house, carrying
the flowers in a wide, open basket. The females of each house take
out water to wash his feet as he approaches, and, kneeling before
him, make a most respeotful obeisance. He then dances with them,
and plaoes over the door of the house, and in the hair of the women,
some of the sdl flowers. The moment that this is accomplished,
they throw the oontents of their water-vessels over his venerable
person, heartily dousing the man whom a moment before they
were treating with such profound respeot. But to prevent hi
catching cold they ply him with as muoh of the home-brew as he
can drink, consequently his reverenoe is generally gloriously drunk
before he completes his round. The feasting and beer-drinking
now become general ; and after the meal the youth of bow
sexes, decked with sal flowers (they make an exceedingly becom-
ing head-dress), flock to the dkhra , and danoe all night and best
part of next day.”

“ Where a death oocurs in an Or&on family, it is made known
...... by the lamentations of the women, who loosen

v ° eaXo e their hair (a demonstration of grief whioh
appears to prevail in all countries) and cry vigorously. They lay
out the body on the oommon cot, called chdrpdi ; and, after washing
it oarefully, oonvey it to the appointed burning-place, covered with
a new doth, and escorted by all the villagers, male and female, who
are able to attend. In some families the funeral procession proceeds
with musio, but others dislike this custom, and nothing is heard but
the cries of the women. When they have arrived at the plaoe where
the funeral pile has been prepared, the body is again washed, and the
nearest relations of the deceased make offerings of rice, and put rice
into the mouth of the corpse, while others put pice or other coin.
The body is then placed on the pile and anointed ; further
offerings of rice are made, and the pile is ignited by a father or
mother, a wife or husband. When the body has been consumed,
notioe is given in the village, and there is another collection of
friends and relatives to oollect the oharred bones whioh remain.
These are placed in a new earthen vessel, and oeremoniously taken
to the village ; and as the procession returns, parohed rice is
dropped on the road to mark the route selected. The oinerary urn
is suspended to a post erected in front of the residence of the
deoeased ; the guests are feasted, and the party then breaks up. In
the month of December or January next ensuing, the friends and
relations are all again collected to witness the disposal of the bones
in the place that, from the first establishment of the community, has
been appropriated to the purpose. This is a point on whioh the
Or&ons are exceedingly tenaoious ; and even when one of them dies
far from his home, ms relations will, if possible, sooner or later,
recover* the fragments of his bones, and bear them back to the
village, to be deposited with the ashes of his ancestors. The burial
ground is always near a river, stream, or tank. As the procession
proceeds with music to this place, offerings of rice are continually
thrown over the cinerary urn till it is deposited in the grave prepared

k 2

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for it, and a large flat Btone plaoed above. Then all must bathe,
and after paying the musicians the party returns to the village. The
money that was placed in the mouth of the corpse and afterwards
saved from the ashes is the fee of the musicians. The person who
oarried the bones to the grave has to undergo purification by incense
and the sprinkling of water. It is to be observed that this ceremony
oocurs in each village but once in the year ; and on the appointed
day the ashes of all who have died during the year are simultaneously
relegated to their final resting place. No marriage can take place in
a village whilst the boneB of the dead are retained there. The most
ardent lovers must patiently await the day of hadfjari or sepulture.
The marriage season commences shortly afterwards.”

In the eyes of the average Hindu the Or&ons have no social
status at all, and are deemed to be entirely
m outside the regular caste system. In the
important matter of diet the main body of the tribe have as yet
made no concessions to Hindu prejudice. Beef, pork, fowls, all
kinds of fish, alligators, lizards, field-rats, the larvse of bees and
wasps, and even the flesh of animals which have died a natural
death, are reckoned lawful food. Ordons, in fact, will eat almost
anything, and are looked down upon as promiscuous feeders by the
Bagdis, Bauris, and other dwellers upon the outskirts of Hinduism.
A common oharge is that they eat snakes and jackals, but this is
only partially true, for the flesh of these animals is used solely
for certain obsoure medicinal purposes, and is not recognized as a
regular article of diet. It is a singular fact that the Oraons hold
the ass to be sacred, and will not kill it or eat its flesh, thus
assigning to the animal much the same position and dignity as the
Hindus give to the cow. No reason can be given by the members
of the tribe for delighting to honour an animal which is in no way
characteristic of heir present habitat ; nor do I find any evidence to
support the obvious conjecture that the ass may have been a tribal
totem. The question of such totems and its bearing upon the
problem of the origin of exogamy has been discussed at length in
the Introduction to the first volume.

The Oraons claim to have introduced plough cultivation into
Chota Nagpur, and thus to have displaced
ccupa ion. the barbarous dahd method of tillage whioh

is oarried on by burning the jungle and sowing a crop of pulse
or Indian-oorn in the ashes. They were certainly among the
earliest settlers on the plateau of Chota Nagpur, and many of them
even now hold bhuinhari tenures in right of being the first clearers
of the soil. These rights, however, are now fast passing out of their
hands, and the modem competition for land tends rather to reduce
them to the position of tenants-at-will or landless agricultural
labourers. “ Their lot,” says Colonel Dalton, “ is not a happy one.
Not one of their own people now occupies a position whioh would
give him the power to protect, or the influence to elevate, them from
the state of degradation into which a majority of the tribe have long
fallen. They submit to be told that they were especially created as
a labouring class. They have had this so often dinned into their ears,

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that they believe and admit it ; and I have known instances of their
abstaining from olaiming, as authorised by law, commutation for the
forced labour exacted by their landlords, because they considered
that they were bom to it. There are indeed some amongst them,
stem yeomen, who oling with tenacity to the freeholds they have
inherited, and will spend all they possess in defending them; but
the bulk of the people seldom rise, in their own country, above
the position of cottiers and labourers. There the value of labour
has not risen in proportion to the advanoe that has taken place in
other parts of India ; and Or&ons are easily induoed to migrate for
a time to other climes, even to regions beyond the great ‘black
water,* where their work is better remunerated. But those who return
with wealth thus aooumulated regard it not. They spend in a month
what would have made them oomfortable for life, and relapse into
their lot of labour and penury, as if they had never had experience of
independence and plenty. I believe they relish work, if the task-
master be not over-exaoting. Or&ons sentenced to imprisonment
without labour, as sometimes happens, for offences against the
excise laws, insist on joining the labouring gangs, and wherever
employed, if kindly treated, they labour as if they felt an interest in
the work. In cold weather or hot, rain or sun, they go cheerfully
about it; and after some nine or ten hours of toil, they return
blithely home, in flower-decked groups, holding eaoh other by the
hand or round the waist, and singing.

“The constitution of the Or&on village is the same as that
of the MundArl. In each the hereditary miinda or headman and the
hereditary pdhn or priest have their lands on privileged terms, as
the descendants of the founders of the village. The hereditary
estates of the two families are called khiinU , and there is sometimes
a third khimt , called the mahato ; on all of these a very low rent is
fixed, but there are conditions of servioe attached. These may now
be oommuted to cash payments at the instance of either party.
There is also, under oharge of the pdhn , the land dedicated to the ser-
vioe of the village gods. The priestly office does not always descend
from father to son. The latter may be ignorant and disqualified, or
he may be a Christian; therefore, when vaoated, it is filled by
divination. The magic slip, or winnowing-sieve, properly spelled
like a divining-rod, conducts the person holding it to the door of
the man most fitted to hold the offioe. A priest there must be ; an
Orion community cannot get on without one. The fate of the
village is in his hands ; in their own phraseology, it is said that ‘ he
makes its affairs.’ He is also master of the revels whioh are for
the most part connected with religious rites. The doctrine of the
Orions is that man best pleases the gods when he makes merry
himself; so that acts of worship and propitiatory sacrifices are
always associated with feasting, dnnking, dancing, and love-making.
The mdnda or mdhato is the functionary to whom the proprietor
of the village looks for its Beoular administration. In contradis-
tinction to the pdhn who makes (bandtd) the affairs, the mdhato
administers (chaldtd) them ; and he may be removed if he fail to
give satisfaction.”

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150

OSWAL.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of
Or&ons in 1872 and 1881 : —

District.

1872.

1881.

District.

1871

1881.

Bardwan

Bankura

Birbhum

Midnapur . M

Hughlf

Howrah

24-ParganAs ...
Nadiya

Khulna

Jemore

Morshedabad

Dinajpor

Bajsnahye

Eangpur

%£

Darjiling

JalpUort

Knoh Behar

Daooa

Faridpur

lldm.nwnh <ti iti

106

5,169

528

J 626

5,362

265

6,131

2,735

6,619

242

167

200

1,6*8

453

2,413

5,567

f 240

1,439

633

133

1499

2,187

2,826

422

185

605

210

Chittagong

Noakhali

Patna

Gya

Shahabad

Darbhanga

Saran , M

Champaran

Monghyr

B hagai pur

Furnish

M i Ida h

Ban tat ParganAs ...

Cuttack

Balasore

Tnbutary 8tates ...
H&z&ribagh

LohardagA

Bingbhum

Manbhum

Tributary 8lates ...

712

886

2,288

5,612

8,066

8,165

S,06i

1,775

151,810

1,937

53,342

106

1,224

108

1.492
48

8,182

7,864

2,622

1,962

1.493
60.924

1.505

670

48,976

Orion, a section of Ghdsis ; a
sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Orion-Kharii, a sub-oaste of
Khari&s in Chota Nagpur.

Oraon-Munda, a sub-tribe of
Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Orea, basket -maker, a sept of
Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Orgonra, hawk, a totemistio
sept of Oraons in Chota Nagpur.

Orb, a sub-caste of Nuni&s
in Behar and of Kaibarttas in
Orissa. It deserves notice
that Od or Odh is a well-known
vagrant caste of earth- workers in
the Pan jab, R£j put£na, and
Western Hindustan. See Mr.
Ibbetson’s Report on the Census
of the Panjib, p. 308.

Orha , Ourha, synonyms for
TJriya, a native of Orissa.

Orhchisi or Mundi-chd *& , a
sub-oaste of Chisis in Orissa.

Orh-Pin or Uriya-Pin, a
sub-oaste of Pins in Orissa.

Orii, a sub-oaste of Sooirs in
Behar.

Or-M&hali, a sub-caste of
Mihilis who are basket-makers,
the same as Dorns.

Osii, a section of the Biyihut
and Kharidahi Kalwars iu
Behar.

Osiir, a pur or section of
Sikadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Osti, Ostad, a title of
Hajjims in Behar.

Osti, a thar or section of
Nepili Brahmans.

Osui, a sept of Tipperahs in
the Hill Tracts of Chittagong.

©Sto£I, a wealthy and respectable trading caste of Behar and
Upper India, who say that their name is
origin derived from Osii or Osnagar, a town iu

Mirwir. Colonel Tod plaoes them among the mercantile dans of
Rijputs, and they themselves, like many other trading oastes, olaim

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151

OTONIA.

to be pure Vaisyas. However this may be, no one oan fail to
observe in them a refined type of features and a comparatively
fair oomplexion — characteristics which oan only be accounted for by
supposing them to be of tolerably pure Aryan desoent. A few of
the sections of the caste are shown in Appendix I. They differ entirely
from those of the Agarwals. The OswAls observe a complex rule'
of exogamy. A man may not marry into (a) his own section, ( b ) his
mother’s, (o) his maternal grandmother’s, (d) his paternal grand-
mother’s, ( e ) his paternal great-grandmother’s. This, though reaching
muoh further than the common rule which bars only a man’s own
section, does not enable the caste to dispense entirely with the usual
system of oounting prohibited degrees. There is only one sub-oaste,
the Das&f which is debarred from intermarriage with Osw&ls proper.
According to Mr. Ibbetson 1 the word “means ‘hybrid,’ and is
used for members of other castes who have departed from the oustom
of the caste or whose desoent is not pure.”

Osw&ls marry their daughters as infants, prohibit widow-
marriage, and do not reoognize divorce. 'Like
&mag0 * the Agarwdls, they also forbid polygamy.

Many of the caste are Swetambari Jains, but in spite of this
difference of religion they intermarry freely with Hindu Oswdls,
most of whom belong to the Vaishnava sect, and thus do not offend
Jain prejudice by partaking of animal food. G-aur Brahmans serve
the OswAls as priests, and do not forfeit their high position by doing
so. The social rank of Osw&ls is about the same as that of
Agarw&ls, and Brahmans will take water and certain kinds of sweet-
meats from their hands.

The Osw&ls were not returned separately in the Census Report
of 1872. The following statement, however, will show the distribution
of the caste in 1881 : —

District.

1881.

District.

1881.

Rardwan

Maimansinh ~

Rangpur

106

Patna

Pabna

Shah&bad

Bogra

Darjiling

164

Monghyr

Sant&l ParganAi

Jalpigori

Lohardag&

Knob Behar

Otoni&, a section of the Biydhut and Kharid&hd Kalw&rs in
Behar.

1 Panjdb Census Report , para. 633.

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PXB.

152

PACHTARIA.

P&b, a synonym for Pan.

P&bai ke kis&n, a seotion of
the Biy&hut and Kharid&hd
Kalw&rs in Behar.

Paban, a family name of the
Grihasth group of Jugis in
Bengal.

Pach&in, a that or sept of
Mangars in Darjiling.

Pach&inya, a sub-caste of
Dorns in Behar.

Pachainyd or Chauhdn , a
sub-caste of Nunias in Behar.

P&chak, a maker of digestive
pills and preserves; also a title
applied to a Brahman cook.

P&ch&l, a title of Kaibarttas.

Pach£s-ghari&, a group of
the Bar-gohri sub-oaste of Khan-
d&its in Chota Nagpur.

Pachautd, a section of Mad-
hesid Halwais in Behar.

Pachbhajud, a seotion of
B&bhans in Behar.

Pacher&y a section of Go&l&s
in the North-Western Provinces
and Behar.

Pachgauti, a section of Rajputs
in Behar.

Pachgotya, a section of B&b-
hans in Behar.

Pachhainya, a sub-oaste of
Agarw&ls.

Pachhainyd Madesid, a sub-
oaste of Halwais in Behar.

Pachbani&p a sept of R&jputs
in Behar.

Pachhi&n, a sub-caste of Cha-
m&rs in Behar.

Pachhimd Brahman , a synonym
for B&bhan.

Pachhw&r, a pur or seotion of
S&kadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Pachia, a sept of Gonds in
Chota Nagpur.

Pachimd or Kanaujid y a sub-
caste of Kumh&rs in Manbhum.

Pach i Pargana, a mul or seo-
tion of the Naomulid or Majraut
sub-oaste of Go&las in Behar.

Pach K&syapa, a section of
Son&rs in Behar, apparently
adopted from the Brahmanioal
system.

Pachlor, a mul or seotion of
the Kanaujid sub-oaste of Son&rs
in Behar.

Pachmait, a section of Mag-
hayd Kumhirs in Behar.

Pdchnarid, a section of the
Biy&hut and Kharid&h& Kal-
w&rs in Behar.

P&chottar, a mul or section
of the Tinmulid and Chhamulid
Madhesid and Bhojpurid sub-
castes of Halwdis in Behar.

Pachpdkar, a section of Son&rs
in Behar.

Pachpanid, a sub-caste of
Gulguli&s in Hazaribagh and
Gya.

Pachtar, a section of Madhe-
sid K&ndus in Behar.

Pachtarid, a sept of R&jputa
in Behar.

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PADAHARI.

153

PAITI.

PadahAri, a group of the
PandA sub-oaste of Utkal Brah-
mans.

PaderAchhA, a thar or sept of
Khambus in Darjiling.

PadhAn, corruption of Pra-
dhAn, a title of ChAsAs in Orissa.

PadhAniA, a section of GoAlAs
in the North-Western Provinces
and Behar.

PadmarAj, Padardj , lotus-
ting ; a title of Pods and J aliyas
in Bengal.

Padma-rAsi, a section of
MAlos in Eastern Bengal.

Padowar, a sept of Pins in
Chota Nagpur.

PAgmal, a family name of
the Kulin group of Jugis in
Bengal.

PAgulwAr-BarhiAm, a mul of
the SAndil section of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar.

Pagul wAr-T arAI oh i , a mul of
the SAndil section of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar.

PagulwAr-Dhen, a mul of the
SAndil section of Maithil Brah-
mans in Behar.

PAhariy a sub-caste of GhAsis
in Chota Nagpur; a section of
Saraogis in Behar.

PahAriA-AgariAy a sub-tribe
of AgariAs in Chota Nagpur.

PahAriA-Asur, a sub-tribe of
Aauras in Chota Nagpur.

PahAriA-BinjhiAi a sub-tribe
of BinjhiAs in Chota Nagpur,
so called from living in the
hills.

Paharia-Korwa, a sub-tribe
of Eorwas in Chota Nagpur.

Pahasrait, a section of the
PaohainyA sub-caste of Dorns in
Behar.

Pahlampuri v a section of
KanaujiA LohArs in Behar.

Pai, a title of Bangaja Kay-
asths.

PaiharwAre, a section of
MadhesiA HalwAis in Behar.

Pdiky a foot soldier, a title of
GoAlAs, KhandAits, ChAsadhobAs,
Pods, and Dhobis. In Midnapur
and Cuttack the Pdiks hold
small landed tenures and serve as
rural police and village watchmen.
Ahir raiks prepare chura.

Paikdry a dealer, a wholesale
purchaser, a broker. In the silk
industry of Bengal the term is
applied to the agents who buy
silk ooooons from the cultivators
and deliver them to the factory.

PaikarAi a sub-tribe of Kaurs
in Chota Nagpur.

PailAHA, a section of the
BiyAhut and KharidAhA KalwArs
in Behar.

PailA-SudhAy a sub-caste of
SudhAs in Orissa.

PailwAr, a sub-caste of
Dosadhs; a sept of BAjputs in
Behar.

Paindi, a thar or sept of
Curlings in Darjiling.

Painju, a thar or sept of the
Das- Curling sub-tribe of Gu-
nmgs, so named after a place
in the frontiers of Nepal and
Tibet near the head waters of
the KAligangA.

PaitAI, a title of TAntis or
weavers, who manufacture Bilk
doth and also mats.

PaithAn, a section of Awa-
dhiA HajjAms in Behar.

PftitJ, a title of TAmbulis in
Behar.

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PXKAB.

154

PALIWXB-HABIPUB.

Pdkar, a fruit, a totemistio
sept of Konrs in Chota Nag-
pur.

Pakarye-Maheshi, a mul of
the Kdsyap section of Maithil
Brahmans m Behar.

P&kari, a gain of the Sdbarna
gotra of Bdrendra Brahmans in
BengaL

P&kbasanta, bird, a totem-
istio seotion of Bagdis in Bengal.

Pakhdli, a synonym for
Dhob&.

Pakharpailo, a sub-section of
the Bharadwdja section of Utkal
Brahmans.

Pakhich&t&, a section of Telis
in Chota Nagpur.

P4khim&r&, ‘bird-killer/ a
title of Bediyds.

Pakhora, a sept of Mundas
in Chota Nagpur.

Pakhrin, a seotion of Murmis
in Darjiling.

PakhuS, a sept of Korwas in
Chota Nagpur.

Pakli, a section of Karan
K&yasths in Behar.

Pakonyal, a thar or seotion of
Nepdli Brahmans.

Pakra, a section of Goria
or Dahi&r Godlas in Behar.

P&kr&si, a gain of the Kasyapa
gotra of BArhi Brahmans in
Bengal.

P&kuri, a title of GodlAs in
Behar.

Pdl, a title of Dakshin-Rdrhi
and Ban gen a Kayasths, Telis,
Sadgops, Kumhars, Tdmbulis,
Tdntis, Subamabaniks, andSutra-
dhars in Bengal. Intermarriage
is usually prohibited within tne
title.

P&ladhi, a gain of the Kdsyapa
gotra of RArhi Brahmans in
Bengal.

Palainggritsa, a sept of
Maghs in the Hill Tracts of
Chittagong.

Palaingtsa, a sept of Maghs
in the Hill Tracts of Chittagong.

Palak PAnre, a mul or sec-
tion of the Biahut sub-caste of
Kalwars in Behar.

Pal&mi, a thar or sept of
Gurungs in Darjiling.

Palankh&i, a title of Bdgdis
in W estera Bengal.

Pal&sa, a sept of Maghs in the
Hill Tracts of Chittagong.

PalAsram, a group of the
Sundi sub-caste of Sunris in
Bengal.

Palaur» a section of Mahesris
in Behar.

PAIi, a mul or section of the
Sdtmulia or Kishnaut sub-caste
of Goalds, and a section of the
Satmulia Maghaya sub-caste of
Kandus in Behar.

P&lit, a title of Kdyasths m
Bengal.

Pdliwdr-Mangraunit a mul of
the Bdtsya section of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar.

Paliw&r-Mahesi, a mul of the
Bdtsa section of Maithil Brah-
mans in Behar.

Paliw&r-DibrA, a mul of the
Bdtsa section of Maithil Brah-
mans in Behar.

PaliwAr-Sakuri, a mul of the
Bdtsa section of Maithil Brah-
mans in Behar.

Paliw&r-Haripuri a mul of
the Bdtsa seotion of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar.

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PALIWAB-SAMAUL.

155

PAN.

PaliwAr-Samaul, a mul of the
BAtsa section of Maithil Brah-
mans in Behar.

PaliwAr-KachhrA, a mul of

the BAtsa section of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar.

PaliwAr-PhuldAha, a mul of
the BAtsa section of Maithil

Brahmans in Behar.

Paliw&r-Mahendra, a mul of
the BAtsa section of Maithil

Brahmans in Behar.

Paliw&r-JarhatyA, a mul of
the BAtsa section of Maithil

Brahmans in Behar.

ftolip, Poliya, Pola, a Dra-
vidian cultivating caste of North-
ern Bengal, originally Kochh.

PaliyAr-ParghA, a sub- caste
of ParghAs.

P&lki, a sept of BAjputs in
Behar.

Pallab or Ballabh, a sub-caste
of GoAlAs in Bengal.

Pallal, a group of BArendra
QoAlAs in Bengal.

Pall i, a sub-tribe of Savars in
Orissa.

PalmohA, a sub-oaste of
Koiris in Behar.

Pals&i, a gain of the KAsya^a
gotta of BArhi Brahmans in
Bengal

PAlu, a sept of Limbus in
Darjiling.

flatter, an up-oountry caste,
by profession dealers in ghi, boat-
men, cultivators, makers of brick-
dust ; some are also engaged as
moharirs in the firms of trades-
men. Suryabansi is their title.

PamAr, a sept of the Surya-
bansi division of Bajputs in
Behar.

Pamia, a tree, a totemistio sept
of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Panwa , Panr, Pah , Panika y Chile, Chik-Baraik , Baraik ,
Ganda , AJahato , Sduasi , Tanti, a low weaving,
ngm * basket-making, and servile caste scattered

under various names throughout the north of Orissa and the
southern and western parts of Chota Nagpur. “In feature,”
says Colonel Dalton, “these people are Aryan or Hindu rather
“than Kolarian or Dravidian. Their habits are all muoh alike,
“repudiating the Hindu restrictions upon food, but worshipping
“ Hindu gods and goddesses, and having no peculiar customs which
“stamp them as of the other races. 1 ” In Singbhum they are
said by the same authority to be “ domesticated as essential consti-
tuents of every Ho village community, ” and “ now almost undis-
tinguishable from theHos. 2 ” In another place they are described
as “ in all probability remnants of the Aryan colonies that the Hos
subjugated. 3 ”

From these somewhat contradictory utterances it is not quite
easy to gather what was Colonel Dalton’s final opinion as to the origin
of the PAns. In one plaoe he credits them with features of an
Aryan or Hindu type, in another he speaks of them as almost
undistinguishable from the Hos— the most markedly Negrito-like

1 Dalton, Ethnology of Bengal, p. 325.

* Dalton, op . cit., 196, 325.

* Dalton, op.cU p. 185.

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PAN.

156

representatives of the Dra vidian raoe. The distinction between
Kolarian and Dravidian mentioned by him is of oourse purely
linguistic as has been explained in the introduction to these volumes.

The suggestion that the P&ns may be the remnants of Aryan
colonies subjugated by the Hos takes us baok into prehistoric times,
and raises the probably insoluble question : Were there ever Aryan
oolonies in the region where we find the P&ns ; and if so, is there any-
thing to show that the Hos subjugated them? To the best of my
knowledge the only evidenoe for the existence of suoh colonies
oonsists of certain scanty architectural remains buried here and there
in the jungles of Chota Nagpur, and of the shadowy tradition
that the Singbhum copper mines were worked by the Jains.
This seems a slender foundation for the oonjecture that the P&ns of
the present day are the descendants of prehistoric Aryan colonists
who were subdued by the Dravidian races of Chota Nagpur and
settled down as helots in communities of alien blood, retaining
their religion, but parting with that purism in matters of food
which has always distinguished the Aryan in comparison with the
Dasyu.

Fortunately there is no necessity to eqter upon this speculative

Traditions. line Not only do their own tradi-

0ES& tions claiming descent from the snake throw

doubt on the Aryan pedigree which has been made out for
them, but the most cursory examination of the exogamous
divisions of the P&ns affords convincing evidence of their Dravidian
origin. The caste has a very numerous set of totems, comprising
the tiger , 1 the buffalo, the monkey, the tortoise, the cobra, the mon-
goose, the owl, the king-crow, the peacock, the centipede, various
kinds of deer, the wild fig, the wild plum, and a host of others which
I am unable to identify. They have in fact substantially the same
set of totems as the other Dravidian tribes of that part of the country,
and make use of these totems for regulating marriage in precisely
the same way. The totem follows the line of male descent. A
man may not marry a woman who has the same totem as himself,
but the totems of the bride’s ancestors are not taken into account, as
is the case in the more advanced forms of exogamy. In addition to
the prohibition of marrying among totem kin, we find a beginningof
the supplementary system of reckoning prohibited degrees. The
formula, however, is curiously incomplete. Instead of mentioning
both sets of uncles and aunts and barring seven generations, as is
usual, the P&ns mention only the paternal uncle and exclude only
one generation. They are therefore only a stage removed from the
primitive state of things when matrimonial relations are regulated by
the simple rule of exogamy, and kinship by both parents has not
yet come to be recognized.

Like most castes whioh are spread over a large area of
country, the P&ns appear under several different names, the origin of

1 It is a singular fact that the tiger gives its name to two separate
groups. One of these is called Kulhai , a word which must have denoted
tiger in the original language of the Pans (compare the Santali Kulh) ; while
the other, Bdghail , is obviously of Hindi origin.

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157

P AS.

which it is now difficult to trace. Thus in Manbhum they call them-
selves Bar&ik, t the great ones/ a title used by the Jadubansi R&jputs,
the Binjhias, Bautins, and KhancULits ; in Western Lohardagd and
8arguj& we meet them under the name of Chik or Chik Bar&ik;
in Singbhum they are Saw&si or T&nti, and in the Western Tribu-
tary States they are called Ganda, a name which suggests the
possibility of descent from the Gonds, a tribe whioh in former times
appears to have extended further to the east, and to have oooupied
a more dominant position than is the oase at the present day.

In Orissa five sub-castes are known:— (1) Orh-Pdn or Uriya-Pdn t

internal structure. a Bemi-Hinduised group 'supposed to have
sprung from a Ivmon between a Pin woman
and a member of one of the lower TJriya castes, but now claim*
ing a higher social status than the Pius of the original stock;

(2) Buna-Pin, including those Pins who weave cloth only;

(3) Betra-Pan or Raj-Pin, basket-makers and workers in cane, also
employed as musioians, syoes, and ohaukidars. (4) Pin-Baistab, com-
posed of Pins who have become Vaishnavas and who officiate as
priests for their own caste. As a general rule it may be laid down that
religious differences within the pale of Hinduism do not lead to the
formation of endogamous groups. Among Agarwals and Oswals
Jains and Hindus intermarry. It is only in Orissa that the Vaishnava
members of several oastes seem to out themselves off from their own
caste and from the general body of Vaishnavas, and form a new sub-
oaste under a double name denoting the origin of the groups.
(5) Pat radii, consisting of those Pans who live in the villages of the
Kandh tribe, work as weavers and perform for the Kandhs a variety
of servile functions. The group seems also to inolude the descendants
of Pans, who sold themselves as slaves, or were sold as Merias or
viotims to the Kandhs. The precise history of the Patradii sub-oaste
is of coarse obscure, but I see no reason to doubt the possibility of an
endogamous group being formed iu the manner alleged. There is no
question whatever as to the Pins oooupying a separate quarter,—
a kind of Ghetto,— in the Kandh villages, where they weave the cloth
that the tribe requires, and also work as farm-labourers, cultivating
land belonging to the Kandhs, and making over to their landlords
half the produoe as rent. These Pans naturally oome to be looked
down upon by other Pins who serve Hindus or live in villages of
their own and then oome to be ranked as a separate sub-oaste as
regards the slave class alleged to be iucluded in the group.
We know that an extensive traffic in children destined for
human sacrifice used to go on in the Kandh country, and
that the Pins were the agents who “ sometimes purchased, hut
more frequently kidnapped, the ohildren, whom they sold to the
Kandhs, and were so debased that they oooasionally sold their own
offspring, though they knew of course the late that awaited them.”
Moreover, apart from the demand for saorifioial purposes, the practice
of selling men as agricultural labourers was until a few years ago
by no means unoommon in the wilder parts of the Chota Nagpur
Division, where labour is scarce and oash payments are ulmnafr
unknown. Numbers of formal bonds have oome before me whereby

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PAN.

158

men Bold not only themselves, but their ohildren for a lump sum to
enable them to marry, and on several oocasions attempts have been
made to enforoe suoh oontraots in the oourts, and to prevent the Kamid ,
as a slave of this class is called, from emigrating to the tea distriots
of Assam, or from otherwise evading the obligations he had taken upon
himself. There is nothing therefore antecedently improbable in the
existence of a slave sub-caste among the Pans.

Pin girls are usually married after they are fully grown up,
M and the Hindu practice of infant-marriage is

syTmffe confined to a few well-to-do members of the

Orh-P&n sub-oaste, who have borrowed it from their orthodox
neighbours as a token of social respectability. The standard
bride-prioe is said to be Rs. 2 in cash, a maund and a half
of husked rice, a goat and two sdris — one for the bride aud one
for her mother-in-law. In Orissa the simple marriage ceremony in
vogue is performed by a member of the P&n-Vaishnava sub-caste,
who, as has been mentioned above, serve the P&ns as priests, and are
often spoken of inaoourately as their “Brahmans.” In Chota Nagpur,
where the organization of the caste is less elaborate than in Onssa,
men of the N&geswar caste not unfrequently serve the P&ns as
priests ; or again any member of the caste with a turn for cere-
monial functions may officiate, and the post is usually filled by a
Bhakat or devotee. The most essential portions of the ritual are
believed to be sindurdan , the smearing of vermilion on the bride’s
forehead, and the parting of her hair and tying together the hands
of the bride and bridegroom.

The widows may marry a second time, and it is deemed the

E roper thing for her to marry her deceased husband’s younger
rother. She may in no case marry the elder brother. Divorce is
permitted, for almost any reason, with the sanction of the oaste
panchdyat. In Orissa the headman of the caste, styled Dalai or
Behera, presides on Buch oocasions, and a chhada-patra or bill of
divorcement is drawn up. The husband is also required to provide
her with food and olothing for six months. Divorced wives are
allowed to marry again.

The professed religion of the Pdns is a sort of bastard Hindu-
ism, varying with the locality in which
iglon ‘ they happen to be settled. In Orissa and

Singbhum they inoline to Vaishnavism, aud tell a silly story
about their descent from Duti, the handmaiden of R£dh&, while
in Lohardagd the worship of Mahddeva and Devi M6i is more
popular. This veneer of Hinduism, however, has only recently
been laid on, and we may disoern underneath it plentiful traces of
the primitive animism common to all the Dravidian tribes. Man is
surrounded by unseen powers — to call them spirits is to define too
closely — whioh need constant service and propitiation, and visit a
negligent votary with various kinds of diseases. The P&ns seem now
to be shuffling off this uncomfortable creed and deserting their ancient
gods, while as yet they have not taken vigorously to Hinduism, and
they ere described by one observer as having very little religion of
any kind. Among the minor gods in vogue among them mention

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159

PANCHAUBHE-KHAJULI.

may be made of Pauri Pahari or Bar-PahAr, a divinity of unques-
tionably Dravidian origin, who inhabits the highest hill in the
neighbourhood and demands the sacrifice of a he-goat in the month
of PhAlgun, and occasional offerings of ghi all the year round.
The snake is also worshipped as the ancestor of the caste. An attempt
was made recently by the Pins of Moharbhanj to induoe Brahmans
to officiate for them as priests at marriages and funeral ceremonies,
but no Brahmans oould be persuaded to undertake these offices.

The southern Pins usually bury their dead in Orissa with
™ , . the bead pointing to the east, while in Sing-

bhum it is turned towards the north. In
LohardagA both cremation and burial are in vogue. Rape seed and
water are offered to the deceased and to his ancestors on the eleventh
day after death.

The social status of the caste according to Hindu ideas is
exceedingly low. They eat beef, pork, and
fowls, drink wine, and regard themselves as
better than the HAri in virtue of their abstain-
ing from horse flesh. In LohardagA they eat kaehi , drink and
smoke with Mundas and Oraons. Their original occupation is
admitted to be weaving, but many of them have now taken to culti-
vation. The BunA PAns of Orissa are noted thieves.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of
PAns in 1872 and 1881

Social status and occu-
pation.

District,

1872.

1881.

District.

1872.

1881.

Birbhum

Chittagong

Midnapur

9,709

Tipperah ... ...

24-Pargan4s

......

Cuttack

04,765

78,967

Khulna

...

Puri

6.242

6,124

Rangpur

■

Balatore

36,046

48.192

Bogra

Tributary States

112,628

106,667

Dacca

LohardagA

12,387

217

Bakarganj

Maimansinh

•• ••*

M&nbhum

l'ributary States

30,463

630

719

PAn, a sect of DasnAmi
SannyAsis; a title of Telis and
Aguris in Western Bengal.

Panarha, a title of ChamArs
in Behar.

Panchabati, a gain of the
SAbama gotra of BArendra Brah-
mans in Bengal.

Pancha DrAvira, one of the
two main divisions of Brahmans
dwelling in the south of the
peninsula.

Pancha Gauriya, one of the
two main divisions of Brahmans

dwelling in the valleys of the
Ganges and Jumna.

Panchakoti, a sub-caste of
Brahmans, Baidyas, and Bauris
in Western BengaL

PanchapAndava, “ the five
Pandus,” a title of Kshatriyas.

PanchaparibAr, a man with
five families, a pangat or sect of
Baitagis in Bengal.

PanchAsiA, a sub-caste of
Sunris in Tipperah.

Panchaubhe-Khajuli, a mul
of the SAbama seotion of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar.

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PANCHAUBHE-JHAUA.

160

PANDIT.

Panchaubhe-JhauA, a mul of
the SAbarna section of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar.

Panchaubhe-Birpur, a mul of
the SAbarna seotion of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar.

Panchaubhe-Barhmaul, a mul
of the SAbarna section of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar.

Panchaubhe-Bhithi, a mul of
the SAbarua section of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar.

Panchaubhe-Dadri, a mul of
the SAbarna section of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar.

Panchaubhe-Kariaun, a mul
of the SAbarna section of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar.

PanchbatiAr, a pur or section
of SAkadwipi Brahmans in
Behar.

PanchbhaiA, a functional seo-
tion of Babhans and Turis in
Behar.

Panchbi ha, a section of TAntis
and PAns in Chota Nagpur.

Panchhai, a pur or section of
SAkadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

PanchhiA, a sept of PAns in
Chota Nagpur.

PanchjAti, a sub-caste of Kha-
tris in Bengal.

Panch^anthi, a pur or section
of SAkadwipi Brahmans in
Behar.

Panchkuti, a thar or sept of
DAmis in Darjiling whose chief
profession is sewing.

PanchnAmA mandar, a title
of NAgars in Behar.

Panchobe, a kul or section of
BAbhans in Behar.

PanchsamAji a group of the
Barendra Sunris in Eastern
Bengal.

PAnchsata BahAttarghar, a
sub-caste of Kaibarttas in Central
Bengal.

PAnchsau-ghariA, a group
of the Bar-gohri sub-caste of
KhandAits in GAngpur.

PAnchuriA, an endogamous
division of BArendra Brahmans
in Bengal They are held in the
same estimation among BAren-
dras as PirAlis among KArhis.

Panda, a sub-caste of Utkal
Brahmans in Orissa, who serve in
temples resorted to by pilgrims.
The term is especially applied to
temple priests in Orissa.

Pandar, a tree, a totemistic
sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

PAnde, a title of Babhans ; a
section of the JSribAstab sub-caste
of KAyasths in Behar ; also
a designation of clerks of the
Kayasth caste in Chota Nagpur.

PAnde or Panre, a title of
Gaura, KanaujiA, and SAraswat
Brahmans in Behar.

PAndiAm, a section of Telis in
Chota Nagpur.

PandiAr, a pur or seotion of
SAkadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Pandit, ^i) a learned man:
hence, ironically, a title of
BAgdis, Dorns, Jugis, and other
low castes, who do not employ
Brahmans, (ii) A section of the
Banpar sub-caste of Gonrhis in
Behar. (iii) A title of Kumhars.
(iv) A title of SAraswatBralimans
in Behar; a thar or seotion of
NepAli Brahmans, (v) A title of
priests of Bamasankar castes in
Tipperah.

Digitized by ^.oosle

PANDITBATNI.

161

PANSHA.

Panditratni, including Kes-
•£**> GnrbbabAni, MAlAdhAri, and
Brahmaoh£ri, a tnel or hyper-
gamous sub-group of R&rhi
Brahmans in BengaL

. Pandki, a seotion of Gh&sis
m Chota Nagpur.

PfindrS, a seotion of Saraogis
in Behar.

Pandrasau-gharid, a group
of the Bar-gohn sub-oast© of
Khanddits in Gangpur and
Bonai.

Pandubi, a sub-caste of Mal-
14hs in Behar.

Panduchone, a sept of Mun-
das in Chota Nagpur.

Panduki or Pandki , dove, a
totemistio sept of Mundas and
Telis in Chota Nagpur.

Paner, Paneri, Panhdri, a
seller of pdn or betel leaf, a title
of Barais and T&mbulis in
Behar.

P a neru, a thar or seotion of
Nep&li Brahmans.

Pang-Karmo, pang , ‘pasture/
and Jcarmo, ‘white’— a dweller in
high pastures, a sub-sept of the
Nah-pA sept of Sherpa Bhotias.

P^ni, a section of TJtkal or
Orissa Brahmans.

P&ni&| a dealer in pan or
betel-leaf, a title of Barais and
Tambulis in Behar.

chaur, a seotion of
the Biyahut and Eharidihi
Kalwars in Behar.

Pdnika, a synonym for Pin.

Pamy&r, a section of the
Maghay* sub-caste of Kumhars
in Behar.

Pinjd, heap of brioks, a title
of Birendra Brahmans and Kai-
barttas in Bengal.

Panjidr, Panjiirfi, a caste
official who keeps up genealogies
and registers of marriages in Be-
har; a section of Maghayi Kum-
hirs and a pang at or section of
Dosadhs ; a title of N Agars ; a
section of the Banap&r sub-caste
of Koiris and Sunris ; a title
of Go616s and Telia in Behar; a
title of Kharwirs in LohardagA.

P&njibaddh, a hypergamous
of Maithil Brahmans in

P&nkharayd, a seotion of the
Biyahut and Kharidaha Kal-
wars in Behar.

Pankhi, a bird, a totemistio
sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

P&nkunda, a samdj or local

g roup of the SAndilya gotra of
AsohAtya Baidik Brahmans in
Bengal.

PanpAtra, a group of the
DaspArA sub-caste of K nmh Ars
in Pabna.

Pnnr, a sept of Mundas in
Chota Nagpur.

Pdnr, a synonym for Pin.

Pdn re, a section of Kan&ujiA
Lohars and of the B&np&r sub*
caste of Gonrhis in Behar.

Pdnre ke pdnre, a seotion of
the Biyahut and KharidahA Kal-
wars in Behar.

Pdnru, snake, a totemistio
sept ot LohArs in Chota Nagpur.

Pansain, a seotion of the
Amashta Kiyaeths in Behar.

Pdnsha, a sub-oaste of Tam-
bulis in Behar who deal in betel-
leaves.

Digitized by LjOOQle

PANS ILI.

162

PABBATB.

PAnsili, a sub- caste of LohArs
in Chota Nagpur.

PAn-Tanti, a class of Tantis or
weavers in Chota Nagpur who
allow widows to marry, eat fowls,
drink wine, eto., while the other
class, Aswini TAntis, do no suoh
things.

Panthar, a sub-tribe of Lim-
bus in Darjiling.

PAnthi, a thar or sept of Man-
gars in Daijiling. See PAnti.

PanthpAkar, a section of the
BiyAhut and KharidAhAKalwArs ;
a mu l or section of the TinmuliA
MadhesiA sub-caste of HalwAis
and of the AyodhiAbasi sub-caste
of SonArs in Behar.

PAnti, Pdnthi , a title of Telis
and Tambulis in Bengal who sell
pan (piper betel).

PAnwa, a synonym for Pin.

PanwAr, a sept of the Suraj-
bansi division of RAjputs in
Behar.

PApriwAl, a seotion of Saraogis
in Behar.

Papson, the adopted one, a
sept of the Chaibisa sub- tribe of
Limbus in Darjiling.

ParabwAr, a dih or exogam-
ous section of the Gharbait subr
caste of AmAts in Behar.

PArAjuli, a thar of the Kaun-
din gotra of NepAli Brahmans.

Parak, a dugu or section of
the Kochh-Mandai in Dacca.
The name indicates the original
habitat of the group, probably
a hill or village in Assam, and
now- a- days has no bearing upon
marriage.

ParamAnanda Misra, a mel
or hypergam ous sub-group of
RArhi Brahmans in Bengal.

ParAmAnik, a title of TAntis,
Telis, NApits, Bagdis, Dome,
Bauris, and of GoAlAs in Bengal ;
of Kurmis in Behar ; a section of
PAtnis and of the Chapota sub-
caste of Hindu JolAhas in Behar ;
a hypergamous division of Telis
and Tiyars in Bengal

ParamAnna, a title of Kai-
barttas in Bengal.

ParAsara» a gotra or seotion of
Brahmans ; of TAntis in Bengal ;
an eponymous sept of RAiputs in
Behar; a section of BAbhans in
Behar, borrowed from the Brah-
manical system and superadded
to the original exogamous groups
(kuk) characteristic of the caste ;
a gotra or section of Jolahas in
Behar. This designation has been
borrowed from the Brahmans in
comparatively reoent times, and,
being used indiscriminately by all
JolAhas, does not operate as a bar
to intermarriage. In fact, the
Behar JolAhas have no working
exogamous sections, and reckon
prohibited degrees by the formula
mamera, chachera , eto., explained
in the artiole on Bais. A section
of Karans in Orissa ; of KAvasths,
MadhunApits, TAmbulis, SAnkhA-
ris,and Subamabaniks in Bengal ;
an eponymous section of Bhuin-
mAlis in Eastern Bengal.

Parasar Das, a synonym for,
and sub-caste of, Kaibarttas.

PArAswar, a thar of the
Basishth gotra of NepAli Brah-
mans.

ParayAi a sept of Hosin Sing-
bhum.

Par bate, a section of KAmis
in Darjiling.

Digitized by {jOOQie

PABBATBH.

163

PABGH1.

Par bat eh, a thar or sept of
Mangars in Daqiling.

Parbatti -Kurin, a sub-caste
of Gonrhis in Behar, which,
though endogamous as regards
the other sub-castes of Gonrhis,
allows of intermarriage with the
Kol sub-caste.

Parbatya, a thar or section of
NepAli Brahmans.

PArbbat, a sect of DasnAmi
SannyAsis.

Parbe, a pang at or section of
Dosadhs in Behar.

Pardh&n (Pradhan), a title
of KhandAit Bilks, Shari As, and

Kbarwars in Chota Nagpur; a
section of Sunris in Behar.

Pardhiel Kokaw, atotemistio
sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Parel, a title of Kaibarttas in
Bengal.

Parel, PondyAI, a thar of the
AtrAi gotra of NepAli Brah-
mans.

ParewA, pigeon, a totemistio
sept of BediAs in Chota NAgpur.

PArgAch A, a thar or sept of
SunuwArs in Darjiling.

ParganAbhusAri, a dih or
local section of the MaghayA
sub-caste of Koiris in Behar.

fiarijhA:, Parighd , a small cultivating and labouring oaste,
probably of Dravidian descent, found in
Urt * In ‘ Monghyr, BhAgalpur, and the SantAl ParganAs.

The origin of the ParghA is obsoure, and their traditions throw
no light upon their tribal affinities. One legend of the common
miraculous type says that the first ParghA was created from the sweat
of one of the Hindu gods in order to be a warrior. Another describes
them as PaliyA or ‘ fugitive 9 Rajputs, who fled from the north-west
before the avenging Parasu Ram, and on the way tore off their
Brahmanioal threads and threw them into the river Son. The PaliyAs
of DinAjpur, themselves originally Kochh, have a similar tradition,
and so have other Dravidian castes whom fortune has placed in a
position to pass themselves off as RAjputs. There would indeed be
.nothing primd facie improbable in the hypothesis that the ParghA
may be nothing more than an outlying branch of the PaliyA ; nut
arguments based on similarity of names are apt to prove fallacious,
and I know of no definite evidence either for or against suoh a con-

J 'ecture. Mr. C. F. Magrath, in his memorandum on the castes of
Jehar included in the Report of the Census of Bengal for 1872, was
disposed to infer from their looation that they must be a Hinduised
offshoot of the Bhuiyas; but this suggestion again seems to be
unsupported by any tangible evidenoe.

The ParghAs of Bhdgalpur are divided into two sub-castes —

internal structure. Supa-ParghS and Pali y&r-Parghfi, and* into
# several sections, which are shown m Appendix 1.

The section-names are of no special interest. Most of them are
terms, such as Marar, Raut, and the like, used by many other oastes
as titles. I am informed, however, on good authority that among
the Pargha these groups are exogamous. Prohibited degrees are
reokonea by the usual formula calculated to seven generations in the
descending line.

Digitized by

PARGHA.

164

PAEHATIA.

Girls of the ParghA caste may be married either as infants or
. as adults, but the former practice is deemed

amage * the more respectable, and no father who could

afford to get his daughter married as a child would allow her to reach
the age of puberty unmarried. The standard low-caste ritual is
followed, in which the smearing of vermilion on the bride’s forehead
is believed to constitute the valid and binding portion. Polygamy is
permitted in the sense that a man may take a second wife if the
first is barren. Widows may marry again, and are bound by no
restrictions, except those arising from the prohibited degrees, in their
choioe of a seoond husband. Divoroe is not formally recognized;
and when a woman goes wrong, she is simply oast off by her
husband. She is not, nowever, turned out of the caste, and she may
marry again.

The religion of the Parghis offers no points of special interest,
. and appears to differ little from that of other

glon * Hindus of about the same social standing.

Maithil Brahmans serve them as priests, but their rank is low among
those of the sacred order. The funeral ceremonies of the caste are
for the most part framed on the orthodox model, and are performed
on the thirteenth day after death ; but in the case of persons who
die by a violent death, some Parghas construct a small round heap of
dried mud, which is called after the dead and worshipped with
offerings of goats and sweetmeats as a minor god.

The bulk of the caste are occupancy or non-occupancy raiyats
and landless day-labourers ; some are tenure-
^Oocu p a tio n and social h 0 i<i erg> and a few exceptionally fortunate

individuals have risen to the status of zemin-
dars holding petty estates. In point of sooial standing Pargh&s
rank a little lower than DMnuks. They observe the standard
soruples regarding food, and profess to abstain from spirituous
liquors.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of
the Parghd caste during 1872 and 1881 : -

District. 1872. 1881.

Champaran ... ... ... 4

Monghyr ... ... ... 979 444

Bh&galpur ... „. ... 6,466 6,146

Santal Pargan&s... ... ... 1,860 1,161

Parhia , a small
Dra vidian tribe of Palamau, des-
cribed briefly by Colonel Dalton
and at greater length by Mr. L.
R. Forbes in his report on the
settlement of Palamau. Their
sections are totemistic. Colonel
Dalton speaks of them as ‘the
mere remnant of a tribe who,
according to their own traditions
in this district and the traditions
of other raoes (Lohardaga), once
formed an important section of

the population.’ They worship
Dharti Mai, the earth goddess,
and Gohet

Parh&pe, a section of Bdb-
hans in Behar.

Parhar, a section of Go614s in
the North-Western Provinces and
Behar.

Parhatid, a sub-section of the
Bharadwaja section of Utkal
Brahmans.

Digitized by {jOOQie

PAEIAL.

165

PARWARIA.

PAriAl, a gdin of the SAbarna
gotra of RArhi Brahmans in
Bengal.

PariAn, a seotion of 8onArs in
Behar.

PariAr, a pur or section of
SAkadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Parich, a mul of the KAsyapa
seotion of Maithil Brahmans in
Behar.

Pdrich%arddr 9 a head of the
pdrichs or exogamous sections into
which some castes are divided.

ParidA, a title of ChAsAs in
Orissa.

Parigh&y a synonym for Par-
ghA.

PArihAI, a gdin of the SAndilya
gotra and a mel or hypergamons
sub-group of RArhi Brahmans in
Bengal.

Parihar, a section of KumhArs
in LohardagA.

ParihAr, a sept of the Chandra-
bansi and Suryabansi sub-tribes
of Rajputs; a section of the
BanpAr sub- caste of Gonrhis and
of Sunns in Behar.

PariharbAri, a section of the
BiyAhut and KharidAhA Ral-
wArs in Behar.

Parihasta, a title of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar.

Parijai Kavala, a thar or
section of NepAli Brahmans.

ParipAI, a sub-caste of Sunns
in the SantAl ParganAs and
Manbhum.

ParirA, a sub-tribe of Savars
in Orissa.

P a fj&» a title of AgariAs, Asu-
ras, Bin jhiAs, Oraons, and EhariAs
in Chota Nagpur.

PArkhari, a sept of Limbus
in Darjiling.

ParkhiA, a virtuoso, an exam-
iner of jewels.

PArnAgrahi, a group of the
Srotriya sub-caste of Utkal Brah-
mans.

PArni, a title of several
fishermen castes — ChandAl, MAlo,
Kochh, etc., who aot as ferrymen.

Parrarit, a section of
MaghaiyA KumhArs in Behar.

ParsaiA, a mul or section of
the AyodhiabAsi sub-caste of
SonArs in Behar.

ParsariA, a kul or section of
BAbhans in Behar.

ParsautiA, a section of the
SAtmuliA MaghayA sub- caste of
KAndus in Behar.

ParselA, a mul or section of
the Ghosin sub-caste of GoAlAs
in Behar.

Parsi, Parsu, a bush, a totem-
istio sept of Mundas in Chota
Nagpur.

Parubo, a rut or sept of
Dejong Lhoris whose ancestor
had emigrated from Bhotan.

Parue-Mahendra, a mul of
the KAsyap seotion of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar.

PArui, a sub-oaste of Chandals
in Eastern Bengal ; a title of
Kaibarttas in Bengal.

ParurA, a section of AwadhiA
HajjAms in Behar.

Parus, a section of the Mag-
haya sub* caste of Barhis in
Behar.

ParwariA, a section of the
DhaprA sub-caste of Dorns in
Behar.

Digitized by LjOOQle

PiBYA

166

PASI.

Paryd, Parky a, “ a low Brah-
man who takes from Hindus
alms, such as oil, old black
blankets, etc. ; all black things on
every Saturday, which is account-
ed a hlaok day.” Fallon , *.r.

P&sb&n, " watchman,” a title
of Dosadhs in Behar, where
members of that caste are largely
employed as chaukidars or village
watchmen.

P&sch&tya Baidik, a sub-caste
of Baidik Brahmans in Bengal,

Paschimi, a sub-caste of
K&m&rs in Eastern Bengal

Paschim-Kab&t, west gate, a
title of Khand&its in Orissa.

Paschim-Kuliyd, a sub-caste
of Sadgops in Bengal.

Paschim-r&rhi, a sub-caste of
Nipits in Bengal.

Paserea , a class of people who
hawk about goods for sale ;
pedlars.

a Dravidian caste of Behar, whose original occupation
. is believed to have been the tapping of the

palmyra, date, and other palm trees for their
sap. The name P6si is usually derived from pa&a, a noose or cord,
whioh Mr. Nesfield interprets as disolosing that they have only
recently emerged from the hunting state, it seems, however, more
probable that the name refers, not to the snaring of wild animals,
put to the sling or noose used by P&sis in climbing palm trees.

P4sis are divided into four sub-castes— B&ydhi, Gaiduha,
_ . Kamdni, andTirsulici. There are also Mahom-

m edan P&sis, distinguished by the designation

T urk. The BySdhd sub-caste say that their original oooupation was
to collect the water-chestnut or singhara (Trap a bispinosa , ftoxb.), but
now they tap date trees like the other sub-castes. There is only one
geotion, K&syapa, whioh has been borrowed from the Brahmanical
system in comparatively reoent times, and has no bearing on the
regulation of marriages. Prohibited degrees are reokoned by the
standard formula mamerd , chaehera , etc., calculated to seven gener-
ations in the descending line. Pasis marry their daughters as infants
. or as adults according to their means, the

amage ’ former praotice being deemed the more respect-

able. The marriage ceremony is of the ordinary low-caste type. It
is preoeded by lagan , when a Brahman stirs up in water two grains
of rice, representing the bride and bridegroom, and sprinkles vermilion
over them as soon as the grains float into contact with eacjh other.
This favourable omen having been observed and a trifling sum paid
as bride-price, a date for the marriage is fixed. The binding portion
of the ceremony is the smearing of vermilion on the bride’s forehead
with the bridegroom’s left hand. Opinions differ as to the praotice
of the caste in the matter of polygamy. Some say that a man may
have as many wives as he can afford to maintain ; others that he can
only take a second wife with the consent of his first wife, and for the
purpose of obtaining offspring. A widow may marry again by the
Bagai form, but is expected to marry her deceased husband’s younger
brother if there is one. Failing him, she may marry any one not
within the prohibited degrees. Divorce is effected, by the consent

Digitized by {jOOQie

167

PA8I.

of fhe panohiyat, whan a woman is oonvioUd of adultery with another
member of the oaste. Women diyoroed on these grounds may marry
again on paying a fine, whioh usually takes the form of a feast
to the oaste panohdyat. Adultery with an outsider admits of no
snoh atonement, and a woman deteoted in this offence is turned out

of the oaste, and usually becomes a regular prostitute.

In matters of inheritance the caste professes to be guided by the
suoeessibiL principles of the Mitakshara law, which are
1 1 enforoed in oases of dispute by the caate-oouncil

(paneh&yat). Daughters, however, and daughters’ sons, do not
inherit so long as any deadi relative survives.

Most Pasis belong to the Sakta seot of Hindus, and regard
. Bhagavati as the goddess whom they are chiefly

gl0IL bound to worship. In their religious and

ceremonial observances the Kamani sub-caste alone employ Tirhutii

Brahmans, who are said to incur no social degradation by serving

them. The other sub-castes oall in degraded (patit) Brahmans for
marriges only. Such Brahmans rank very low in social reputation,
and their employment by the Pasis seems to be a reform introduced
at a very recent date, for in all funeral oeremonies and at sacrifices
offered to the greater gods whenever the servioes of a Brahman are
not available the worshipper’s sister’s son ( bhdnja ) performs the
functions of the priest. Among the Pisis of Monghyr this anoient
custom, whioh admits of being plausibly interpreted as a survival of
female kinship, still prevails in such force that the caste has not yet
been oonvinoed of the necessity of engaging Brahmans at all. The
guru of the Pasis is usually a Ndnak-Shahi asoetio.

The minor gods of the Pisis are very numerous. Bandi,
Goraiyi, Sokha, Sambhunith, Mahdmdy*, Rim Thakur, Mian
Kabutra, Naika Gosain, Masan, Ostad, and Kartar are the names

mentioned in different parts of Behar. Goats, pigeons, Cakes, milk,
eto., are offered to them six times in the year, the offerings being
afterwards eaten by the worshippers. In the month of Jeth the
sickle (i hamuli ) used for cutting the palm tree is set up and solemnly
worshipped with offerings of flowers and grain.

P&sis rank socially below Tatw&s, and on much the same

Boded status and occu-
pation.

level as Binds and Chains, exoept that, unlike
these, they nowhere attain to such consider-
ation that Brahmans will take water from

their hands. Most of them eat fowls and field-rats, and indulge
freely in spirituous and fermented liquors. Many of them have
taken to cultivation instead of, or in addition to, their traditional
avocation, and hold land as occrupanoy or non-occupancy raiyats.
Others are employed as day-labourers, porters, coolies, or servants
to low-oaste shop-keepers. In Bengal tnere is comparatively little
demand for their servioes as palm-tappers, for the owners of toddy
and date palms either extract the juice themselves or employ Bhuin-
m£lis to do so, and shops for the sale of spirituous liquors are usually
owned by Sunris or outcast© Sudras. Aooording to Dr. Wise, the
extraction of the juioe of the tal> or palmyra palm, as well as that
of the khajur , or date palm, is a most important operation in

Digitized by LjOOQLe

PASI.

168

PATAB MAH ILI.

Eastern Bengal, although it has not given rise to the formation of
a special caste. The tdl trees are tapped from March to May ; the
date palms in the oold season. The juice of the former, or toddy
(tart), is used in the manufacture of bread, and as an intoxicating
liquor by adding sugar and grains of rioe. Hindustani drunkards
often add dhaturd to increase its intoxicating properties. In Dacca
a tdl grove is usually rented, and on an average twelve annas a tree
are obtained. The quantity of juioe extracted varies from an average
of five to ten pounds. When fresh this sells for two annas a seer,
but if a day old for only one anna. Date palm tdri is rarely drunk,
being popularly believed to cause rheumatism, but is extensively
used in preparing sugar. A date palm is generally leased for seven
annas a year.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of
Pasis in 1872 and 1881

District.

1872.

1881.

District.

1872.

1881.

Bardwan

318

264

Tipperah

Bankura

Patna

33,299

37,136

Birbhum
Midnapar ...
Hughli ... .

Howrah

643

213

Gya

Shahabad ...

...

34J)60

9,641

39,309

11,978

} 813

f 7ff

l 446

MosulTerpur...
Darbhanga ...

j 19,339

f 11,711
l 12,810

24-Parffanto ...

1.226

648

Saran

4,767

6,662

Nadiya

Chain paran ...
Monghyr

1,668

2,635

Khulna

...

12,362

13,996

Murshedabad

265

Bhagalpur ...
Purniah

6,268

6,690

Dinajpur

620

2,080

Rajshahye ...

924

Maldah

312

667

Bahffpur

194

SanUU Pargan&s

1,716

2,206

Bogra

Cuttack

1,062

631

Pabna

Puri

1,246

3,074

Darjiling

Jalpigon

Balaaore
Tributary States

1,266

206

164

Kuch Behar ...

Haiaritagh •••
Lohardaga ...

2,404

3,882

Dacca

##l

1,103

2.400

Paridpur

Singbhum ...

Bakarganj ...

...

••••••

Manbhum ...

Maimansinh ...

...

Tributary States

172

Pasupatiyd , a worshipper of
Siva under the name of Pasupati,
4 Lord of Animals.’

Pataiw&r, a dih or exogamous
section of the Gharbait sub-
caste of Amats in Behar.

Pat&lang, a sept of Limbus in
Darjiling.

P&talkat, a class of stone-
cutters in GyA whose Ancestors
are said to have been brought
from Jaipur to build the Vishnu-
pad temple. They make stone
cups, idols, and toys.

P6tar (Sans. PAtra), a title of
Eaibarttas and various other

castes; a section of the Pargha
caste in Behar.

Pdtdr, a section of Bhojpurid
Halw&is in Behar.

Pat&-Ratnauli v a sub-group of
Maghaiya Telis in Behar.

Pdt&ri, a gain or sub-sec-
tion of Saptasati Brahmans in
BengaL

Patariar, a section of Mahilis
in Chota Nagpur.

P&tar M&hili, a sub-caste of
MAhilis in the south of Man-
bhum.

Digitized by Cjoosle

PATA SAY A.

169

PATIKAR.

Pata Sayd, a sept of Hos in
Singbhum.

Patatri, a Sanskrit word for
4 bird/ a title of the low olass
mountebanks called Harbolas , who
imitate the tunes of birds and
make their livelihood thereby.

P&tbandh, a sub-tribe of
Kharw&rs in PahLmau.

Pate, a group of the Srotrya
sub-caste of Utkal Brahmans.

P&th&, goat, a title of B&rendra
Brahmans in Bengal.

Pathai&r, a pur or section of
S&kadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

P&thak, a title of KanaujiA
and SAraswat Brahmans in Behar ;
of Ddkshin&tya Baidik Brahmans
in Bengal; a section of Utkal
or Orissa Brahmans; a title of
B&bhans in Behar.

Pathal, a section of Khari&s
in Ohota Nagpur.

P&thar, a headman among
tank-diggers in Tipperah ; a
hypergamous group of Kaibarttas
in Bakarganj.

Pather, Pattar , Patra , a title
of Bhuiyas in Western Bengal.

Patheri, a title borne by per-
sons employed in stringing beads
and trinkets with silk.

P&thu, a title of Maithil Brah-
mans in Behar.

Pathuri, a title of Kaibarttas.

P&thuri, dealers in articles of
stone.

PathuriS, a mul or section
of the Ayodhiab&si sub-caste of
Son&rs in Behar. A prostitute.

Pati, a section of Utkal or
Orissa Brahmans.

P&tia D&s, a synonym for
Doai.

a mat-making caste of Eastern Bengal who deny
that they ever cultivate the soil with their own hands. Some say
that they are a branoh of the KAyasths, but no tangible evidenoe in
support of this view seems to be available. The mats made by them,
coarse, dark-coloured, and thiok, are oalled MotApdtf, to distinguish
them from the finer kiuds made at Silhet, known as Sitalp&ti. The
only plant cultivated for mat-making is the Mathara ( Maranta
dichotoma ), which grows luxuriantly in low, marshy country. It
flowers in June and July, and is out, while still green, about the
middle of September, the stems being divided into slips and hung
from the rafters, and when required for use steeped in water f

Among the Silhet Patiala women make the mats ; consequently
the money value of a girl who is a skilful workman is considerable,
and a father receives from three to five hundred rupees when his
daughter marries. In Daoca, on the other hand, men are the sole
workers. Although ohiefly found in Dacca, the P&tials are scattered
throughout Eastern Bengal, wherever the nature of the soil admits
of the cultivation of the Maranta. The caste is eclusively Yaish-
n&va. The headman has the title Pradh&n, or Mu’tabar.

P&tikar, Patud , Sdlubi , an
endogamous class of low Mahom-
edans, who paint pictures illus-
trating Hindu mythology and

hawk them from door to door
with songs. Although P&tikars
are supposed to be Mahomedans,
they, like the Nasyas of Bangpur,

Digitized by {jOOQie

PATIKAR.

170

PATN1.

are very lax in their religious
praotioes. They worship the rose
as a pir> and have a great respect
for the black kite, which they
believe to be a bird of good
omen.

Patita-Kshairi, a synonym for
Kochh.

Patiy&r, a pur or section of
SAkadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Pdtkumid, a sub-tribe of
Bhumij in Manbhum.

Patmurmurara, a sept of
Kharwars in Chota Nagpur.

Patndik, a title of K&ibarttas
in Bengal.

ftetni, Pdtuniy Patauni , Dom-Pdtni, a low boating, fishing,
basket-making, trading, and cultivating caste ef Eastern Bengal, whose
dark complexion, short and muscular frame, snub nose, and expanded
nostrils stamp them as of Dravidian descent. They are, says
Dr. Wise, very reserved and uncommunicative, but there can be little
doubt they were originally Dorns. In Rangpur, and throughout
the valley of the Brahmaputra, they are still designated Dom-Patni,
and in Bengal this is applied to them as a term of abuse. Their other
titles are GangAputra, Ghat-m&njhl, or simply Mdnjhl.

According to some authorities they are descended from a Raj aka,

. or washerman, and a woman of the Vaisya

^ caste. Patnis, however, claim to be the off-

spring of Madhava, who ferried R£ma across a river on his way from
Ayodliya to Mithila, and relate how Madhava, having witnessed
the resuscitation of Ahalya, was afraid to transport the god to the
other bank until he had extracted the promise that Rama would sit
on the gunwale with his feet in the water. The simplicity of this
ferryman was remarkable. When R&ma landed, Madhava com-
plained that the colour of the boat had been changed to a hideous
yellow, and that he was ruined. The reply was that the ferry-
boat had been converted into pure gold, and as a punishment for the
P&tni's stupidity RAma announced that his descendants would always
be ferrymen, and that he himself would after death beoome the
ferryman of the Yaitarani, or Hindu Styx.

Another fiction in the history of the PAtnis pertains to the reign
of BallAl Sen. The monarch became enamoured of a ferryman's
daughter named Padmd-vati, and married her. At the feast Pdkat -
parMy when the bride oooks and the bridegroom for the first time eats
from her hands, the Patnis, with inborn obtuseness, and to the great

f rief of the queen, presented themselves at the end of the festival,
or this misconduct they were degraded and enrolled among the
Nicha or low castes.

The Pitnis are divided into five sub-castes— J&t-P&tni, who
are agriculturists and small traders, usually
u ure ’ keeping shop as mudis or grocers ; Gh&t-P&tni,
Balami or Ghdtw&l, who work as boatmen and take charge of
ferries; Dom-P&tni, Machhwd, or Nag&rchi, who fish, keep pigs,
and get oasual employment as musicians at weddings and festivals
of various kinds; Bansphor and DcigarS, who hunt, manufacture
sieves and baskets of cane, and tie the framework of hanchd houses.
The last two, from the nature of their pursuits, are more or less

Digitized by ^.oosle

171

PATNI.

nomadic, making only temporary settlements in neat round huts
of sirki, which they build on the outskirts of villages near rivers.
All the sub-castes are endogamous. The Dom-Patnis are said to
admit outsiders into their sub-caste on condition of undergoing a
degrading ceremony, one feature of which is that the proselyte must
drink water in which the others have washed their feet.

The exogamous sections of the Patnis shown in Appendix I
appear to be for the most part of the territorial type, and do throw no
light upon the tribal affinities of the caste. It deserves notioe that
one of the sections bears the name TentuliA, which also denotes one
of the Ba^di sub-castes. The prohibited degrees are much the same
as with other low-caste Hindus.

Patnis marry their daughters as infants by the standard
M . ceremony. A bride-price (pan) is paid by the

amage ’ parents of the bridegroom to those of the bride.

Polygamy is recognized in theory, but rarely resorted to in practice.
Widows are not allowed to marry again, and divorce is not permitted.
Traces of widow-marriage still survive among the Patnis of NoakhAli,
but even there the custom is looked upon as disreputable, and seems
likely soon to die out.

In religious and ceremonial observances PAtnis conform on the
whole to the practice of orthodox low-caste
eiigion. Hindus. They employ Patita or Varna Brah-

mans, who generally assume pompous titles, such as Chakravartti
and the like, by way of covering the degradation inourred by serving
the PAtni as priests. The Gosains, on the other hand, who act as the

S irus of the caste, are reoeived on equal terms by other Brahmans.

ost Patnis belong to the Saiva sect, whose tenets involve little
interference with their flesh-eating and spirit-drinking propensities.
Only a few Vaishnavas are to be found among them, except in
Noakhali, where Vaishnavism is the prevalent faith, and the Patnis

S ’ve to it a nominal adherenoe, whioh does not, however, prevent
em from indulging their tastes in matters of food and drink.
™ The dead are burned, and sraddh is performed

D “ p08al 0 on the thirty-first day after death, like most

Hindu boatmen, they invoke the PAnoh Pir on embarking or when
overtaken by a storm. The ohief religious festival is tne Gan gi
Pujd, and Patnis never enter upon the work of a ferry without
first sacrificing a white kid to the river goddess. They also propitiate
Pavan, the Hindu ruler of the winds, with offerings of salt, sugar,
milk, and ganjd.

In point of social status P&tnis rank with Jeliy&s, M&los, and

Sodaictatoa fishing Kaibarttas. Brahmans will not

* m wa ^ er fpQjn their hands, and they have

barbers and washermen of their own caste, as the regular NApit
and DhobA will not work for them. They consider, however, that
they have raised themselves in the social scale by prohibiting the
remarriage of widows, and in various small matters they ape the
prejudices of the higher castes. For example, they will oaulk a boat,
but deem it derogatory to paint it, and though they indulge freely
in intoxicating drinks, they will never own to doing so.

Digitized by

Google

PATNI.

172

PATUNI.

The following statement shows the number and distribution
of the P&tnis in 1872 and 1881 : —

Dibtuct,

1872,

1881.

DISTRICT.

1872.

1881.

Bardwan m.

128

Bocra

1.407

1,134

4,782

Bank ura

Pabna

3,551

Birbhum

104

Jalpigori

Midnapur ...

Hughli

Howrah

195

842

Kuoh Behar

...

}

383

{

374

115

Dacca

Paridpnr

4,696

1,369

4,518

4,147

8,863

24-ParganAa ...

t#|

1,374

892

B&karganj

...

3,836

Nadiya

8,564

3,696

Maimansinh

21,726

28,952

Khulna

...

3,670

Tipperah

6,305

5,814

Jesaore

...

4,369

232

Chittagong

. .

150

Murahedabad

##f

2,529

2,066

Noakh&li

2,419

2,104

Dinajpur
Rajshahye ...

...

1,906

2,052

1,296

1,167

Puraiah

Maldah

1,126

1,066

Rangpor

...

2,178

1,770

Santai Pargan&a ...
Maubham

Pitni, a section of Saraogis in
Behar.

P&todi, a section of Saraogis
in Behar.

P&toli, a title of Jaliyds,
fishermen.

Pfitori, a seotion of Majraut
Go&lAs in Behar.

Pdthpariya , synonym for pdthak ,
a Brahman who reads epic poems,
Puranas, etc., in public.

Patra, Pathara , a title of
T&ntis, cocoon-weavers.

P&tra, Pdtor, a synonym for
MaMpatra, q.v . ; a title of Kai-
barttas, Pods, and T6ntis in
Bengal ; a title of M&los in East-
ern Bengal ; a sept of M&l
PahAriis; a title of Mahilis,
Khand&its, and Telis in Chota
Nagpur.

Patrad&s, a title of the Kurar
or Kural sub-caste of Muohis, who
work as cobblers and beat drums
at festivals.

Patra<ji&, a sub-caste of P&ns
in Orissa.

P&trishi (the bean), a totem-
istic seotion of B&gdis ; a section

of Mils in Midnapur and Man-
bhum.

Pattadir, an honorary title of
Kiyasths in Bengal.

P&ttar, a sub- caste of Tintis
in Bengal ; a class of fishermen
in Eastern Bengal who enclose

C ^ms of newly- formed char
at high tide by small weirs
made of reed grass ( sirki ), and
catch the fish when the water
recedes. They do not use nets.
Pattars also sell fish purchased
from Jeliyds and other fishing
castes.

P&tt&r, a class of Mahomedans
who string silver and gold orna-
ments.

P&tu&i a group of the Karalii
sub caste of Kaibarttas in Noa-
kh&li.

fliitta:, Patu , Potd 9 Potf>,Potud 9
PatvMty a class of people, both
Hindu and Mahomedan, whose
profession is painting Hin du
deities.

P&tuli, a title of Kaibarttas.

Pdtuniy a synonym for Dom
in Northern Bengal.

Digitized by {jOOQie

PATURA-CHHUTAE.

173

PHAGUAHL

Pdturd-Chhutdr, a sub-oaste
of Sutradh&rs in the Santal Par-
gauds.

Paturid, a Mahomedan dan-
cing girl.

Pdturid, a sub-caste of Bauris
in Western Bengal.

flat toff, Pathera , Patheri , a
maker of fancy silk strings and
fringes. Patwas also prepare
and hawk about tasar silk. They
are divided into three endog-
amous groups — Gauria, Rewar,
and Tdnti.

Patwdr , a generio term in
Central Bengal for persons
employed in zaminddri business,
possibly a survival from times
when there were patwdris in
Bengal.

Patwdri, a sept of Thdrus in
Behar.

Patwe, a pangat t or section of
Dosddhs in Behar.

Pdtyakar, a synonym for
Patial, mat-makers and labourers.

Paulastya, a section of Brah-
mans.

Paundrak&lif a gdin of the
Bdtsya gotra of Bdrendra Brah-
mans in Bengal.

Petunia, certain oastes in Behar
entitled to receive gifts from the
village community, viz. Naud,
Dhobi, Lohdr, Kumhar, Churihdr,
Teh, Chamdr, Mdh, Barhi,
Laheri, Ghasi, and Koiri.

Paurid, a sub-caste of Koiris
in Chota Nagpur.

Paurid or Paul id, a sept of
Santdls.

Pauridr, a section of Awa-
dhid Hajjdms in Behar.

Pawaiydr, a pur or section of
Sdkadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Pdwarid, Paurid , a class of
Mahomedan women who dance
and sing in male costume at the
births of children in the houses of
well-to-do people.

Pechd, a bird, a totemistio
sept of Bediyas in Chota Nag-
pur.

Pechgotra, a section of the
Ayodhid sub- caste of Nunids
in Behar.

Pekhd, a sept of Limbus in
Darjiling.

Pengi, a thar or sept of
Guruugs in Darjihng.

Penkdl-Mdchh, a section of
Mdls in Midnapur and Man-
bhum.

Peo, a bird, a totemistio sept
of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Peroan, pigeon, a totemistio
sept of Mundas in Chota Nag-
pur.

Peshdkar, Peshdkarin , a pros-
titute.

Petehimba, a sub-sept of the
Thekim sept of Limbus in Dar-
jihng.

Pethokote, a sept of Mangars
in Darjiling.

Petungbah, a sept of Limbus
in Darjiling.

Phdddm, a sept of the Agnid
sub-tribe of Meohes in the Dar-
jiling Terai.

Phdgu, a sub-tribe of Takhas
in Darjiling.

Phaguahi, a sept of Gonds in
Chota Nagpur.

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PHAKSA.

174

PHULEHLI.

Phaksa, a sept of Chakmis in
the Hill Tracts of Chittagong.

Phalechhuah, a sept of
Limbus in Darjiling.

Phansia, a section of Ghdsis
in Chota Nagpur.

Pharidy a synonym for Kunjra
— vegetable-sellers.

Pharkiet, a section of the
Maghay& sub-caste of Kumhirs
in JBehar.

Pharphar, a gdin or sub-seo-
tion of Saptasati Brahmans in
Bengal.

Phars&dhenti, a sept of Kaurs
in Chota Nagpur.

Phawahong, the name of a
village, a sept of the Yangorap
sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Phed&b or Bhuiphuta, a sub-
tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Phe-dang-sirri, a sept of
Chakm&s in the Hill Tracts of
Chittagong.

Phedungsa, a sept of Chak-
m4s in the Hill Traots of Chitta-
gong.

Phehim, the singer, a sept of
the Phed&b sub-tribe of Lim bus
in Darjiling.

Phejom, the iwAri-bearer, in-
cluding (a) Nembong, ( b ) Sardak-
peapi, a sept of the Panthar sub-
tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Phekuram, a special ancestral
deity of the Bahiot sub-caste of
Amats in Behar.

Phema, a sept of Chakm&s
in the Hill Tracts of Chittagong.

Phendu&, the hammerer of
iron, a sept of the Tambrkhola
sub- tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

This thar were formerly the
blacksmiths of the tribe.

Phensa-pd, a rut or sept of
Dejong Lhoris who are descen-
dents of emigrants from Bhotan
and Nepal.

Pheodan, the water-carrier,
a sept of the PAnthar sub-tribe
of Limbus in Darjiling.

PherkS, a title of Bagdis in
Western Bengal.

Phetici, a sept of B&jputs
in Behar.

Pheyak, a sept of Limbus
in Darjiling.

Phirti, a group of the Karaite
sub-caste of Kaibarttas in Noa-
khdli.

Phlum&chhci, a thar or sept of
Khambus in Darjiling.

Pho-omphu, the hangman, a
sept of the Phed&b sub- tribe of
Limbus in Darjiling.

PhotSddr, a title of the
Ari6r sub-caste of Bais Baniyds
and a pangat or section of
Dosddhs in Behar.

Photro, a sept of the Char-
khola sub-tribe of Limbus in
Darjiling.

Phrangroatsa, a sept of
Maghs in the Hill Tracts of
Chittagong.

Phul, a group of the B&rendra
sub-caste of Sunris in Eastern
Bengal; flower, a sept of Chiks
in Chota Nagpur.

Phulaus, a sub-caste of Na-
gars in Behar.

Phulehli, a thar or sept of
Khambus in Darjiling.

Digitized by {jOOQie

PHULGOT.

175

PIPPALAI.

Phulgot, a totemistie section
of Nunias in Behar.

Phulhdri, a title of Haris in
Eastern Bengal who are not
sweepers, but are engaged as
ohaukid&rs and gardeners.

Phuli, a mul or seotion of the
Chhamulid Madhesid sub-caste of
Halwdis in Behar.

Phulid, a mel or hypergamous
sub-group of Rdrhi Brahmans in
Bengal.

Phulkdtd-Mdli, a sub-caste
of Mdlis in Bengal.

Phulmdli, a synonym for Mali.

Phulndpit, a sub-caste of
Ndpits in Western Bengal who
have given up their profession of
shaving and taken to cultivation.

Phulwar, a sept of Godlds in
Chota Nagpur.

Phungthag, he who stole to
order ; a sept of the Pheddb
sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Phungun, a sept of Ghiks in
Chota Nagpur.

Phunknalii a sub-section of
the Bharadwdja section of Utkal
Brahmans.

Phunvdli a thar or seotion of
Nepdli Brahmans.

a mendicant caste
of the Darjiling Terai regarding
which little is known.

Phurkeli, a thar or sept of
Khambus in Darjiling.

Phurtii a sept of Mundas in
Chota Nagpur.

Phuti, rainbow, a totemistie
sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Phutka, vegetable, atotemistio
sept of Loh&ra in Chota Nagpur.

Phyagpa, the knife-grinder,
a sept of the Pdnthar sub-tribe
of Limbus in Darjiling.

Phyuydli, a thar or sept of
Mangars in Darjiling.

Pichagma, the son of the
monkey, a sept of the Chaibisa
sub- tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.
This thar is said to have formerly
worshipped the monkey.

Pikord, a bird, a totemistie
sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Pi If a title of Dakshin Rdrhi
and Bangaja Kayasths.

Pi Id, a totemistie sept of the
Bhumij tribe in Chota Nagpur.

P i Ich wdr, a section of Bdbhans
in Behar.

Pilich, a section of the Sdt-
mulid Maghayd sub-caste of
K&ndus in Behar.

Piliksawdr, a section of Bdb-
hans in Behar.

Pilkhait, a seotion of Bdb-
hans in Behar.

Pilua, a section of Mahilis in
Chota Nagpur.

Pindwdl, a section of Kordnoh
Halwdis in Behar.

Pingud, a sept of Hos in
Singbhum.

Pipar, a fruit, a sept of Telis
in Chota Nagpur.

Piparid, a mul or section of
the Kanaujia sub-caste of Sondrs
in Behar.

P ip*# a title of Bangaja
Kayasths. *

Pippaldi, a gdin of the Bdtsya
gotra of Birhi Brahmans in
Bengal.

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PIPPALL

176

POD.

Pippali, a gdin of tbe Bhar&d-
wAja gotra of BArendra Brah-
mans in Bengal.

Pipret, a mul or section of the
NaomuliA or Majraut sub-caste
of GoAlAs in Behar.

PipriAti, a section of Barhis
in Behar.

Pirabhanga, a sept of Chak-
mAs in the Hill Tracts of Chitta-
gong.

PirAli, an endogamous division
of the RArhi Brahmans in
Bengal. The popular story of the
origin of this group is that their
ancestor was degraded for having
accidentally smelled food whioh
had been prepared in the house
of a Mahomedan. They are
held in the same estimation
among RArhis as PAnohuriAs
among BArendras.

Piruwal, a sub-caste of
Khatris in Bengal.

Pishle, a sub-oaste of Telia
in Bengal.

Pitamundiy a gdin of the
KAsyapa gotra of RArhi Brah-
mans in Bengal.

PithAkoteh, a thar or sept of
Mangars in Darjiling.

PithAri, a gdin or sub-section
of Saptasati Brahmans in Bengal.

PithoAr, a section of GorAits
in Chota Nagpur.

PitraihA, a tnul or section of
the Banodhia sub-caste of Kal-
wArs in Behar.

Pitule-KAmAr, a sub-oaste of
KAmArs in Midnapur.

PlembochhA, a thar or sept
of Khambus in Darjiling.

Poa, a sept of ChakmAs in the
Hill Tracts of Chittagong.

Padmardjy Chdsi, a fishing, cultivating, landholding, and
trading caste of Lower Bengal, found in large
ngUL numbers in the 24-ParganAs. Their origin

is uncertain. Babu Bankim Chandra Chatterji, quoted at page 188
of the Census Report of 1872, notices their “ marked approach to the
Turanian and aboriginal type ” of features, and seeks to identify
them with the Pundra mentioned in the MahAbhArata as one of the
five chief races of Eastern India between Magadha and the sea.
The educated members of the caste claim for it a mixed descent from
a KAyasth father and a NApit mother. Others tell a highly indeli-
cate story regarding the miraculous birth of the first Pod from
Revati, the wife of BalarAm.

The Pods are divided into four sub-castes— BAgande, BanglA,
_ , , . . KhottA, or MaunA and Uraiya. The first two

" n secure, are f oun d ohiefly in the 24-ParganAs and
Jessore, the third in Murshedabad and Maldah, and the fourth in
Midnapur and Balasore. All these groups are endogamous. Each
is subdivided into gotras or sections borrowed from the Brahmanical
system. The prohibited degrees are the same as among the higher

Pods marry their daughters between the ages of five and nine
years, forbid widow-marriage, and do not
amage * recognize divorce. The morality of Pod widows,
however, is alleged to be singularly lax, and the caste is tolerant

Digitized by ^.oosle

177

POD

towards sexual indisoretions, so that the illegitimate children of
widows and of divorced women are received into the community.
Their marriage is of the orthodox type, the ceremony of Kusandika
alone being omitted. Sampradan , or the offering of the bride to the
bridegroom and his acceptance of the gift, forms the binding portion
of the ritual.

In addition to the well-known sects of Saiva, S&kta, and
Vaishnava, we find among the Pods a large
Beligion. number of Sauras and GAnapatyas, sects very

sparingly represented among the higher classes of Hindus in Bengal.
The caste employ as their priests Earhi Brahmans, who are held to
be so far degraded by serving them that high class Brahmans will
not take food or water from their hands. The gurus of the Pods are
B&rhi Gos&ins, but these, I understand, have in no way forfeited
their position among Brahmans, though in some oases they eat
and drink in Pods’ houses. An instance of this was brought to
my notice recently as evidenoe of the growth of the spirit of
religious toleration among the educated Hindus of Calcutta and
its suburbs.

The social status of Pods is deoidedly low. They will eat
sweetmeats, drink and smoke with the fishing

Social status. sub-castes of B&gdis ; and these are ordinarily
deemed to be nearly their equals in rank. Brahmans and members
of the Nava S&kha group will not take water from them ; and the
Sutradhar and Kapdli, while they will eat sweetmeats, drink and
smoke in company with a Pod, will not use the same pipe or drink
from the same lota . In matters of diet their practice is orthodox
on all points except the indulgence in strong drink. They will
eat the leavings of Brahmans. Vaishnava Pods abstain from all
kinds of flesh. The great majority of the caste are engaged in
agriculture, as tenure- holders, aud occupancy
ccupa on * or non-occupancy raiyats. A few have risen
to be zaminddrs, and some at the other end of the scale work as

nomadic cultivators on freshly-oleared land in the Sundarbans,
changing their location every two or three years according to the
fortune of their crops. Many Pods have taken to trade, and gold-
smiths, blaoksmiths, tinsmiths, carpenters, thatchers, etc., are found
among them.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of
Pods in Bengal in 1872 and 1881 v —

Disctugt.

1872.

1881.

District.

1872.

1881.

Bardwan

Bankura

226

196

Birbhum

Rangpur

Hidnapur

Hoghll

10,630

Bogra

} 16,727

( 1,968

i 14,138

Pabna

Howrah

Dacca

101

S4-Pu0«a||

249,075

217.236

Fnridpur

Nadiya

4,260

1,220

Bak&rganj

314

Khulna

66,790

Maimansinb

Jeanore

21,662

7.047

Tipperah

MaMah

Hunhedabad

8,137

8,216

Digitized by LjOOQLe

PODDAB.

178

PBAMANIB.

PoddAr, a title of the AriAr
sub-caste of Bais BaaiyAs and of
SonArs in Behar ; of 6unris and of
Subamabaniks in Bengal who are
money-lenders and dealers in gold
and silver ornaments.

Podoro, a sept of Hos in
Singbhum.

Pod ret, a section of MaghayA
KumhArs in Behar.

Pohobait, a section of the I
PaehainyA sub-oaste of Dorns in
Behar.

PoiA, a sept of Gonds in Chota
Nagpur.

Poiti, a sept of Gonds in Chota
Nagpur.

PokharmiA, a section of Lo-
bArs in Behar.

Pokhrel, a section of KAmis in
Darjiling.

Poma, a sept of ChakmAs in
the Hill Traots of Chittagong.

Pomo, the large family, a
sept of the Ahtharai sub-tribe of
Limbus in Darjiling.

Pondha, the wanderer, a sept
of the Yangorup sub-tribe of
Limbus in Darjiling.

Pongwar, a thar or sept of
Mangars in Darjiling.

Pongyangu, he who oarries
his goods on his baok, a sept of
the PhedAb sub-tribe of Limbus
in Darjiling.

Ponkrishi (jungle oock), a
totemistio section of BAgdis in
Western Bengal

Pon-po, a rui or sept of the
Bedtshan-gye sub-tribe of Dejong
Lhoris or Bhotias of the south.
This sept is oomposed of the five
ollowing sub-septs : — ChhungpA ,

Lhasung, Nah-dik, Nambon, and
Yo-ohang.

PonthAk, a sept of Limbus in
Darjiling.

PorAri, a pain of the KAsyapa
gotra of RArhi Br ahm a n s in
Bengal.

PoriAl, a title of Telis.

Porri, a sept of Gonds in
Chota Nagpur.

Portel, a section of KAmis in
Darjiling.

Porti, crooodile, a totemistic
sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

PotA, a section of KAmArs in
Singbhum and the SaniAl Par-
1 ganAs.

, Potaddr, Poddar (properly
Fotadar, from Persian fotdh, a bag
or puree), a cash-keeper, a money-
changer ; an officer in Govern-
ment treasuries who examines and
weighs ooins.

' Prachanda, furious, a title of
Bdrendra Brahmans in Bengal.

Pr&chir, a section of Pdtnis in
Eastern Bengal.

Pradhdn, (i) a title of Kai-
barttas, Suklis, Sunris, and others
in Bengal ; a title of Kotals and
Binjhids ; of Khanddits in Chota
Nagpur; Pdtnis, Chamdre, and
Santdls ; (ii) a village headman in
Singbhum; (iii) a section of Sunris
in Behar; (iv) a hypergamous
division of Tiyara.

Prahar&j, a title of Khanddits
in Orissa.

Prajdpati, a synonym for
Kumhdr.

Prdmdnik, a group of the
Daspdrd sub-oaste of Kumhdre
in Pabna. See Paramdnik.

Digitized by LjOOQle

PRAMODNI.

179

PFR.

Pramodnl, a mel or hyper-
gamous sub-group of H&rhi Brah-
mans in Bengal.

Pr&si, a section of the Biy&-
hut and Kharid&hd Kalw&rs in
Behar.

Prasidha, an eponymous sept
of Rajputs in Behar.

Pratihdr, including Bangrim
and Gogram, a hypergamous

Pratilomaj, see Anulomaj.

Prayhgwhl, a priestly olass of
Brahmans in Fray£g or Allaha-
bad.

Prohh-kerauta, a section of
Sonars in Behar.

Puir, a sept of R&jputs in
Behar.

Pubi4, Jaid, a sub-caste of
TJtkal Brahmans in Orissa.

Puh&ni&i a section of Go&Ue
in the North-Western Provinces
and Behar.

Puh&r, a title of Chis&s in
Orissa.

Puho&, a sub-caste of Go&lAs
in Behar.

Puild, a title of B£gdis in
Western Bengal.

Puin, a title of Bangaja
KAyasths.

Puj&ha, a title of the Naiyd
caste in Behar, which appears
to have reference to their original
functions as priests of the abor-
iginal or forest deities.

Puktebo, a sept of the Tan-
gorup sub-tribe of Limbus in
Darjiling.

Pul4mi, a ihar or sept of
Mangars in Darjiling.

Pulauns, a sub-oaste of N&-
gars in Behar.

Pum&, a sept of the Tung-
jainya sub-tribe of 0hakm4s in
the Hill Tracts of Ohittagong.

Pun, a thar or sept of Man-
gars in Darjiling.

Pundirika, the white lotus
(Nelumbium speciosum), a title
of Pods, Kaibarttas, and occa-
sionally of Jaliyas

Pundarikiksha, Ptmdari ',

Punra, lotus-eyed; a name of
Vishnu ; a title of Pods who rear
ooooons and cultivate chillies,
gtoger, etc.

Punddrk, a pur or seotion of
Sdkadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Pundul, a sept of Rdjputs in
Behar.

Pung, a thar or sept of Man-
gars in Darjiling.

Pungi, a that or sept of the
Da**Gurung sub-tribe of Gu-
rungs in Darjiling, so called after
the name of a place in Nepal.

Pungsika, a g&in of the 8&bar-
na gotra of R&rhi Br ahmans in
Bengal.

Punrakhi&, a pur or section of
§&kadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Punrapaita, a title of Punras
who rear silk-worms only.

Punri&r, a seotion of Eurmis
in Chota Nagpur and Orissa.'

Pujhor, priests, a sept of M&l
Pah&ri&a in the SantAl Parganas,

Pur, a section of GoAlto in
Behar.

m 2

Digitized by {jOOQie

PUBA.

180

FU8BA.

Pura f a title of Maithil Brah-
mans in Behar.

PurA, a hjpergamous group
of Karans in Orissa.

Purabiy an endogamons divi-
sion of NepAli Brahmans.

PurAin, a section of AwadhiA
HajjAms in Behar.

PuraliA, a section of KAmArs
in Singbhum and the SantAl
ParganAs.

Puran, a section of BhAts who
read out verses in sabhas or oaste
assemblies; a sept of Tipperahs
in the Hill Tracts of Chittagong ;
a synonym for BhuiyA in Mohar-
bhanj.

Purandariy a sub-caste of
TAntis in Bengal.

PurandwAr, a sub-caste of
HAris in Bengal.

PurAsaini, a thar or section of
Nepali Brahmans.

Purbba, a g&in of the BAtsya
gotra of RArhi Brahmans in
Bengal.

Purbba Banga, a sam&j or
endogamous group of the PAsohA-
tya Baidik Brahmans in Eastern
Bengal.

Purbbakul, a sub-caste of
TAntis in Bengal.

Purbba KuliyA, a sub-oaste of
Sadgops in Bengal.

PurbbasthAli, a mmdj or en-
dogamous group of the PAsohAtya
Baidik Brahmans in Nuddia.

Pur be, a section of Sunris and
of the ChapoiA sub-oaste of Hindu
JolAhas in Behar.

PurbiA, a sub-oaste of Sunris
in Behai.

Purbiya, PurbiyA, a sub-oaste
of AgarwAls, a sub-tribe of ThArua
in NepaL

Purbiya Khatri , the distinct-
ive designation of the Bengal
branoh of the Khatri caste.

PurbiyA MadesiA, a sub-oaste
of Halwais in Behar.

Puri, a seot of Dasnami
SannyAsis.

Purthi, a sept of Hos in Sing-
bhum.

Purti, a section of KhariAs; a
sept of LohArs and PAns in Chota
Nagpur.

Purubansi, a sept of BAjputs
in Behar.

Purukhinu NarAin, a section
of the K^ttiAt sub*oaste of DosAdhs
in Behar.

PusA, a seotion of the Paohai-
nyA sub-oaste of Dorns in Behar.

Pusadih, a section of the
Tirhutiya sub-oaste of Dorns in
Behar.

PusAitA, a section of the
DhaprA sub-caste of Dorns in
Behar.

PusAI, a thar or sept of Man-
gars in Darjiling.

PusetA, a section of the Pa-
ohainyA sub-oaste of Dorns in
Behar.

Pushali, PushilAI, a g&in of
the KAsyapa gotra of RArhi
Brahmans in Bengal.

PushAna, a g&in of the SAndi-
lya gotra of BArendra Brahmans
in Bengal.

Pusra, fruit of kusum tree, a
tdtemistie sept of Oraons in
Chota Nagpur.

Digitized by ^.oosle

PUSWAY.

181

PYO-CHHEMBO.

. Pusway, a section of Binjhi&s
in Chota Nagpur.

Putam, dove, a totemistio sept
of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Puti, a gdin of the Bharad-
w^ja yotra of Birendra Brah-
znaus in Bengal.

Pu-tsibo, a rut or sept of
Dejong Lohris, the members of
which are the descendants of
emigrants from Bhotan and
Nepal.

Putuli, a synonym for Gandha-
banik.

Putitunda, a gdin of the B&t-
®ya gotru of BArhi Brahmans in
Bengal.

Puyi-r&si, a section of M41os
in Eastern Bengal.

Putri, a tree, a totemistio sept
of Oraons in Chota Nagpur.

Pu-tsho-bo, a rut or sept of
the Bedtshau-gye sub-tribe of
Dejong Lhoris or Bhotias of the
south, whose ancestor was a
mixed progeny of Lepoha mother
and Tibetan father.

Pyakarel or Pokhary&l, a
thar of the Gargya gotra of
Nep&li Brahmans.

Pyo-chhembo, a rut or sept of
Dejong Lohyis, the members of
which are the descendants of
emigrants from Bhotan and
Nepal.

Digitized by ^.oosle

BABAD.

182

BA1.

RAbad, a section of GoAlAs in
the North-Western Provinces and
Behar.

Rabchhfili, a thar or sept of
Khambus in Darjiling.

Rabi-Dds, a synonym for
ChamAr.

RachhuAni, a sept of RAjputs
in Behar.

RAdhAli, a worshipper of
RAdhA, the favonrite mistress of
Krishna ; a title of Yaishnavas.

Radhar, a sept of Kharwars
in Chota Nagpur.

Rafugar, a professional shawl-
mender ; generally a Mahomedan.

RAghab, a section of the Mah-
mudAbAz sub-caste of NApits in
Eastern Bengal.

RAghab GhoshAli, a mel or
hypergamous sub-group of BArhi
Brahmans in Bengal.

RAghopurdih, a mul or sec-
tion of the NaomuliA or Majraut
sub-caste of GoAlas in Behar.

Raghu, a family of the Kulin
group of Jugis in Bengal.

Raghubansi, a sub-tribe and
a sept of RAjputs in Behar; a
bastard caste in Chota Nagpur,
like Bautia, who act as servants
and are said to have originat-
ed since the time of Maharaja
Raghunath Shahi.

RaghunAthiA, a sub-caste of
TJtkal Brahmans in Orissa.

RaghunAthpurdiAr, a mul or
section of the NaomuliA or Maj-
raut sub-caste of GoalAs in
Behar.

RAhA, a title of Dakshin-
RArhi and Bangaja KAyasths.

RahapAI, a section of E&mis ;
a thar or sept of Man gars in
Darjiling.

RahdauriAr, a pur or section
of SAkadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

RahpAchA. a thar or sept of
SunuwArs in Darjiling.

Rahtaur, a sept of the Suraj-
bansi division of RAjputs in
Behar.

RAhu, a title of Dosadhs in
Behar who worship the demon
RAhu.

RAhul, a thar or sept of the
Das-Gurung sub-tribe of Gu-
rungs in Darjiling. The name
is said to have arisen in conse-

S uence of Rahul, the ancestor of
he thar, showing courage worthy
of the demon RAhu in certain
tribal feuds.

RAhut, a title of Dakshin-
RArhi and Bangaja KAyasths.

RAi, a g&in of the Bharad-
wAja gotra of BArendra Brahmans
in Bengal ; a title of Brahmans ;
a section of the SribAstab sub-
caste of KAyasths in Behar ; an
honorary title of KAyasths and
Subamabaniks in Bengal ; a title
of RAjputs, BAbhans, DhAnuks,
and GoAlAs in Behar ; of Jugis,
Baitis, and Sunris in Bengal ;
a section of Khambus ; a hyper-
gamous division of the Maghaya
sub-caste of Barhis ; a title of
ChAsAdhobAs, KapAlis, KorAs ; a
title and a sept of ThArus ; an
honorific title common among
many other castes.

Digitized by t^oosle

RAIBHtTIYA GHATWAL.

183

RAJHAN8.

RaibhuiyaGhatwal, a well-to-
do class of Bhuiyas, Rai being
their title ; some also call them-
selves Singh.

RaikwAr, a sept of RAjputs in
Behar.

Raini, a kul or section of BAb-
hans in Behar.

RAipur, a section of PAtnis in
Bengal.

RAj, a title of MayarAs in
Bengal.

Raj, Rdjmistri , Rqjmajur , a
mason or bricklayer, an occupation
mostly followed by Kaibarttas,
GhAsAdhobas, BAgdis, ChandAls,
and Mahomedans

Raja, a bird, a totemistic sept
of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

RAja, a family title of Eashta
Baidyas and of Dakshin-RArhi
and Bangaja Kayasths.

RAjA, a section of the Maga-
hiyA sub-caste of Dorns in
Behar.

Rajabin, a that or sept of
Ehambus in Darjiling.

RAjAiswar, a section of the
Kamar sub-oaste of DosAdhs in
Behar.

Rajah, a synonym for DhobA
in Bengal.

Rajandipur, a section of the
AriAr sub-caste of Bais BaniyAs
in Behar.

RAjApAker, a mul or section of
the SAtmuliA or Kishnaut sub-
caste of GoAlAs and of the Kan-
auiiA sub-caste of Sonars in
Behar.

RAjApAkur, a section of
Majraut GoAlAs in Behar.

RajApati-Sobhni, a mul or
section of the Naomulia or Maj-
raut sub- caste of GoAlAs in
Behar.

Rajata-kausik, a section of
the Uttar-BArendra Brahmans in
Bengal.

Rajbandh, a section of GhAsis
in Chota Nagpur.

a Dravidian caste
of Northern Bengal, originally
Kochh, but now claiming to be
an outlying branoh of Ksnatriyas.

RAjbansi, a synonym for
Kochh, Raj war, and for Tiyar ;
a sub-caste of Tiors in Behar
who are said to wear th ejaneo or
sacred thread ; a sub-caste of
Mauliks; a title of Bagdis in
Western Bengal.

Rajbansi or Rajd-Mdl, a sub-
caste of MAls in Western Bengal.

RAjbansiA, a sept of Pans in
Chota Nagpur.

^RAjbhat, an up-country caste
engaged in Bengal as gardeners
and oowherds. They claim to be
a distinct caste from the Bhars,
with whom they do not eat or
intermarry. In the North-
Western Provinces they are
engaged purely in agricultural
pursuits, and rank sooially with
the Kurmis and Koiris.

Rajbhat, a sub-oaste of BhAts,
who are the hereditary bards and
genealogists of the higher classes,
and are said to wear the sacred
thread.

RAjdom, a sub-oaste of Dorns
who affect Brahmanioal customs.

Rajgiri, RAjgrihi, a section of
the SAtmuliA Maghaya sub-caste
of KAndus and of the KanaujiA
sub-caste of Sonars in Behar

Raj Gond, a sub-tribe of
Gonds in Chota Nagpur who
affect Hindu customs.

RAjhans, wild goose, a totem-
istic sept of GoAlAs in Chota
Nagpur.

Digitized by {jOOQie

It A JH ASIA.

184

RAJPUT.

R&jhasia, swan, a totemistio
sept of Pans in Chota Nagpur.

R&jib, a section of the Mah-
mud&b&z sub-caste of NApits in
Eastern Bengal.

Raj-Kattha> see K&stha.

R&jkuar, a sept of lUtjputs in
Behar.

R&jkum&t, a sept of Rajputs
in Behar.

RAjkurin, a section of Mag-
hay6 Dhobis in Behar.

R4jmahali&, a sub-caste of
Kumhdrs in Dacca.

R&jmor, a seotion of Kurmis
in Chota Nagpur and Orissa.

R&jpur, a samdj or local group
of the DakshinAtya Baidik Brah-
mans in the 24-Pargands.

Rajput, a seotion of Ghasis;
a sept of Mundas in Chota Nag-
pur.

^RijpUt, Kshatriya, Chhatri , Chhettri , the fighting and land-
Origin. holding caste of Northern India, who claim

to be the modem representatives of the Ksha-
triyas of classical tradition, and who are in many cases entitled to
appeal to their markedly ibyan cast of feature in support of their
claim. Besides these Aryan R&jputs, the large group designated
indifferently by the name R&jput or Chhatri includes many families
of doubtful or non-Aryan descent, whose pretensions to membership
of the twice-born warrior caste rest solely upon the circumstances that
they have, or are supposed to have, some sort of proprietary dominion
over land. It would be out of place to attempt to give here an
exhaustive account of the R&jput community as it exists in Kij-
putana and North-Western India. The peouliar characteristics of the
pure-blooded Rajput have been described by several competent obser-
vers. Among the most conspicuous are a pride of blood, which
delights in endless genealogies and ranks every one according to
descent ; a strong passion for field sports, combined with an equally
pronounced distaste for peaceful and prosaio means of earning
a livelihood; and an exaggerated idea of the saving virtues of cere-
monial purity and precision in the matter of food and drink.

The same characteristics are doubtless to some extent trace-
able among the R&jputs of the Lower Provinces ; but the pressure
of different conditions of life has tended to obliterate many dis-
tinctions, and the eastern R&jput is far less peculiar than the
Western. It is commonly said that the R&jput can only be
studied in his original surroundings, and that an account of the
tribe as it exists in Bengal must necessarily be valueless and
misleading. There is much truth in this view : at the same time it
may be observed that outlying branches of a tribe which have
wandered far away from the original habitat often preserve survivals
of usages which have died out among the original stock or have been
overlaid and obscured so as to be no longer traceable. Again,
if there is reason to believe, as several good observers think there is,
that the Rajput tribe itself has been recruited now and again by
irregular methods from men of alien lineage, may there not be
a better chance of observing the working of this prooess in distant
districts than in R6jput£na itself, where all departures from the

Digitized by ^.oosle

185

RAJPUT.

strict theory of desoent are speedily condoned and hidden by the
operation of fiction ?

In Chota Nagpur, for example, the methods by which many of the
chief landholding families have transformed themselves into R&jputs
may be traced beyond question at the present day. The Maharajas
of Chutia Nagpur Proper, that is of the elevated table land forming
the southern portion of the Lohardagd distriot, call themselves
N&gbansi, and olaim descent from a mysterious child found in the
jungle, concerning whose origin a singular story is told. The
mytn of the birth of the founder of the Uhutia Nagpur house from
a Brahman mother and a snake father, with the pioturesque incidents
which Colonel Dalton relates, seems to be nothing more than an
ingenious invention contrived to mask the fact that a family of
Munda chieftains had assumed the rank of Itejput To this day
ladies of Nagbansi families will not employ a Munda to oar ry their
palkis, because they say he is their elder brother-in-law (bhaisur),
and they veil their faces before him as they would before an elder
brother-in-law. The Pachete family call themselves Gobansi
R&jputs and tell a strange story, analogous to the N&gbansi myth,
of the birth of their progenitor from a cow in the jungle near
Paohete. The zamindars of Barabhum, Patkum, Nawagarh and
Katiar in Manbhum all claim to be Rdjputs, and boldly affiliate
themselves to the Raksel and Chandel clans. Some minor landholders
of the Bhumij tribe who hold ghatwali tenures in Barabhum
have followed the example of the zamindar of that estate, and call
themselves Rdjputs, though in some cases it can be shown by
documentary evidence that their ancestors in the last generation
called themselves Bhumij.

The traditions of the tribe go back to the dateless antiquity

Traditions. * n w kioh 80 man y royal pedigrees seek

refuge. Accordnig to the usually accepted
version there are two branches of Rdjputs — the Surajbansi or
Solar Race and the Chandrabansi or Lunar Raoe. To these
must be added the four Agnikulas or Fire Tribes. Surajbansi
R&jputs olaim descent from Tkshwdku, son of the Manu
Vaivaswat, who was the son of Yivaswat, the Sun. Ikshw&ku, it is
said, was bom from the nostril of the Manu as he happened to
sneeze. The elder branch of the Solar race sprang from Ikshw&ku’s
eldest son Vikukshi, and reigned in Ayodhyd at the beginning of
the second or Treta Yuga. Another son named Nimi founded the
dynasty of MithilA. The Lunar raoe affect to be descended from
the moon, to whom they trace through Ayus, Pururavas and
Budha or Mercury, the son of Soma by Rohini or by T&rA, wife of
Brihaspati. The Agnikulas or Fire Tribes are supposed to have
been brought into existence by a special aot of creation of compara-
tively reoent mythological date. After the Kshatriya had been slain
by Parasu R4ma, gods and men, and more particularly the Brahman,
began to feel the oonsequences of the loss of their natural protectors.
The earth was overrun by giants and demons (Daily as and Amras ),
the sacred books were held in contempt, and there was none to whom
the devout could call for help in their troubles Visw&mitra, once
a Kshatriya, who had raised himself to be a Brahman by the might of

Digitized by LjOOQLe

RAJPUT.

186

penance determined to revive the race that had been exterminated,
and moved the gods to assemble for this purpose on Mount Abu in
R&jputAnd. Four images of Dkuba grass were thrown into the fire
fountain, and called into life by appropriate inoantations. From these
sprung the four fire-tribes, Pramar, Sulanki, Parihir and Ohauh&n.

Turning from mythology to fact, the first point to be noticed
about the R&jput tribe is that, in theory at any rate, it has no
endogamous subdivisions. All lUjputs are supposed to be of one blood,
and no distinctions are formally reoognized among them as forming
a conclusive bar to intermarriage. The groupings 8urajbansi,
Sombansi and Agnikula refer only to traditions of origin, and there
is nothing to prevent a man belonging to one of these divisions from
marrying a woman who belongs to another subdivision. It is no
doubt the case that some exogamous divisions are of higher rank
than others, and that to give a daughter in marriage into one of these
groups degrades her family in respeot of future marriages for a
period of ' seven years. But with a few doubtful exceptions in
outlying districts the principle of hypergamy has not been pushed
to the point of forming strictly endogamous groups.

The original septs of the BA j put tribe appear to be for

Internal structure. ‘ h ° m0flt P*? .° f the territorial type, that
is to say, their names seem to denote the
tract of country in which the sept or its founder had their
earliest habitat. 8esodia and Bhadauria may be taken as
examples of this type. Other names again, such as Jadubansi,
clearly refer to descent from particular families or stooks. In
addition to their original septs, long lists of which are given in
Appendix I, the R&jputs of Behar also recognize the Brahmanioal
gotro8j and the tendency is for the latter series to supplant
and take the place of the latter. Usually where the original sept
names are still held to govern intermarriage, the rule is that a man
may not marry a woman who belongs to the same sept as his father
or his mother, and the prohibition is often extended to the septs,
of the paternal and maternal grandmothers. Notwithstanding this
rule a case has been brought to my notioe in which the son of
a Salanki Rajput of Behar married a woman of the Chandel sept,
although his father bad married into the same sept. At the time
of the betrothal a question was raised as to the oorreotness of the
procedure, and the Brahmans held that, as the son’s betrothal,
though of the same tribal sept as his mother, belonged to a different
Brahmanioal gotra, the rule of exogamy would not be infringed by
the marriage. The standard formula for reckoning prohibited degrees
is also recognized by the Behar R&jputs, who in theory considered
it binding down to seven generations on the father’s, and five on
the mother’s side. A man may marry two sisters, but he must
take them in the order of age, and he cannot marry the elder sister
if he is already married to the younger.

In theory, as has been already stated, the whole body of Rdjputs
constitutes a single tribe divided into a
gamy? uny *** hyper " very large number of septs or elans of descent,
each of which is supposed to be descended from
a common ancestor. Marriage within the sept is of oourse interdicted

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EAJPUT

to its member, and in theory a R&jput belonging to any given sept
has the whole community to choose from in seeking a bride for his
son or a bridegroom for his daughter. In fact, however, the field of
selection is greatly restricted by the operation of the laws of
isogamy and hypergamy, the nature of which has been explained
in the Introductory Essay. In a society so organized as to give
the fullest play to the idea of purity of desoent and the tradition
of ceremonial orthodoxy, it must needs be that offences should
come, and should be deemed to affect not only the offender
himself and his family in the narrower sense, but the entire sept to
which he belongs, which is conceived as an enlarged family. Thus
in course of time is developed an infinite series of social distinctions
giving rise to complicated and burdensome obligations in respect of
marriage. In the oase of the R&jputs these distinctions have not led
to the formation of endogamous groups, as commonly happens among
other castes, nor have they hardened into fixed hypergamous group-
ings, such as are exemplified by the Kulinism of Bengal. But
running through the entire series of septs we find the usages of
isogamy and hypergamy which have exercised and continue to
exercise a profound influence on Rdjput sooiety. Isogamy or the
law of equal marriage is defined by Mr. Ibbetson 1 as the rule whioh
arranges the septs of a given locality in a scale of social standing,
and forbids a father to give his daughter to a man of any sept
which stands lower than his own. Hypergamy or the law of
superior marriage is the rule which oompels him to wed his daughter
with a member of a sept which shall be actually superior in rank to
his own. In both cases a man usually does not scruple to take his
wife, or at any rate his second wife, from a sept of inferior standing.
It will be readily seen how the working of these rules must have
given rise to all sorts of reciprocal obligations as between septs,
and must have restricted the number of available husbands in any
particular looality. The men of a higher sept oan take their wives
from a lower sept, while a corresponding privilege is denied to the
women of the higher sept. Hence results a surplus of women in
the higher septs and competition for husbands sets in, leading to the
payment of a high prioe for bridegrooms, and enormously increases
the expense of getting a daughter married. Under these circum-
stances poor families are under a strong temptation to get rid of
their female infants by poison or intentional neglect in order to be
saved the expense of finding them suitable husbands or the disgraoe
of being compelled to marry them to men of lower degree.

There is no reason to believe that infanticide has ever been
practised by the Rajputs of Bengal on the
' m ' - & scale on winch it has been known to ocour

in North-Western India. The sentiment which would tend to the
commission of the crime is probably not so strongly developed
among the Eastern Rajputs, who are, as has been indicated above,
probably of much more mixed descent than the Rajputs of
H&jput&n&.

1 fieport on the Census of the Panjab, p. 856.

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188

The demand being i»r husbands, not for wives, it follows that
the negotiations leading to marriage are opened
amag * by the father or guardian of the girl, who sends

his family priest and family barber to the boy’s house to make
inquiries and to answer any questions that may be asked. Some-
times a professional matoh-maker, agud or ghatdk y is employed. In
any oase these preliminary negotiations are known as agudt or
bartuharu If these results are satisfactory, and the girl’s family find
that their offers are likely to be aooepted, the same emissaries pay
a seoond visit to the boy’s house, accompanied by the girl’s father,
and bringing with them her horoscope, which is compared by the
Brahmans of the two families with the horosoope of the boy in order
to ascertain whether the match is likely to be auspicious. When this
point has been satisfactorily settled, the question of the bridegroom-
price (tilak and dahej) to be paid by the girl’s family is disoussed, and
a certain proportion of it, usually half, is paid on the spot by way of
olinching the bargain. This is called bar chhenka or jpAa/rfa/*, and by
receiving it the boy’s people are deemed to bind themselves to marry
him to no other woman. Sometimes the father of the boy also pays
a small sum (sagun) as earnest money to the family of the girl. This
practice, however, is said to be unusual, and is only resorted to when
it is thought that the girl’s family may be disposed to evade fulfilment
of their obligations. The first instalment of the tilak or bridegroom-
price is paid by one of the girl’s relations to the boy himself in the
presence of the family Brahman. At the same time a cocoanut is
presented to him and a mark (tilak) is made with curds on his forehead.
Both the gift and the mark are supposed to bring good luck. The
balance of the bridegroom-price is paid in two equal instalments later
on — one before and one after the marriage. On the occasion of paying

the first instalment of tilak , presents are made to the Br&hmans and
barbers who have taken part in the proceedings, and a date is fixed
for* the celebration of the marriage, an interval of fifteen days being
usually allowed.

A few days before the wedding dhanbatti takes place, a barber
is sent from the girl’s house to the boy’s with a present of unhusked
rioe. The boy’s guardian takes this, mixes with it some rioe of his
own, and has the mixture parched. Two days before the wedding the
women of the family scatter this parched rioe about in the court'
yard, singing songs which are supposed to bring good luck. On the
next day, that is the day before the wedding, the rite of ghidhdri
is performed in the houses of the bride and bridegroom separately.
The parents and nearest relations of the latter put on yellow clothes,
and in the presence of the family priests worship Ganesa, the deity,
who presides over success in life. The bridegroom is then smeared
with oil, turmerio and ghi, offerings are made to the family gods,
and the hair of the bridegroom’s mother or his nearest female relative
is anointed with oil. The same ceremony is gone through in the
house of the bride, the only difference being that her family clothe
themselves in red for the oocasion. On the day of the marriage, but
before the wedding procession is arranged, the ceremony of belonki
mangna is often, though not necessarily, performed. The parents

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189

EAJPUT.

of the betrothed oouple distribute cakes to the neighbours, demand-
ing in return small presents of money (belonki).

The marriage procession is formed at the. house of the bride-
groom, and makes a somewhat noisy progress to the house of the
bride. There the entire party is' entertained. The bride and
bridegroom are seated under a manca or wedding canopy, and after
the reoital of appropriate mantras or texts, the family priest of the
bride’s household fills the bridegroom’s right hand with sindur , and
makes a mark with it on the bride’s forehead, the women of the
family meanwhile singing songs to celebrate the event. Among
the R&jputs of Tirhut this is deemed the binding portion of the
ritual, and the practice of walking round the saored fire, usually
considered essential in the marriage of the higher castes, is said to
be unknown. The married oouple then leave the marwa and go to
the kohbar or house, where the family deity has been placed for the
ocoasion. They worship and make offerings to him, and this
concludes the marriage. The bridegroom then returns to the
janwdsa or lodgings reserved for his party, while the bride remains
in her own house. Early next morning they are brought out and
each is made to ohew betel with whioh has been mixed a tiny
drop of blood drawn from the other’s little finger. This usage in
which we may traoe an interesting survival of primitive ideas
is called sineh jorua , the joining of love. When it is over
the bride is taken to her husband’s house where she remains.
On the fourth day after her arrival she and her husband stand
together on a yoke suoh as is used for oxen, and a washerwoman
pours water over them. This symbolical washing is supposed to be
the first occasion on which the oouple see each other by daylight
after marriage. Among the Rajputs of North-Western India, and
in some parts of Behar, the bride and bridegroom do not live
together until after a second oeremony (onlled gauna , or with reference
to the bride’s * going ’ to her husband’s house) has been performed,
which may take plaoe one, three, five or even seven years after the
marriage, and is fixed with reference to the physical development of
the bride. In Tirhut, however, the oustom of premature consum-
mation, mentioned by Buohanan as prevalent among the Rajputs of
Behar, seems to have been introduced, and it is said to be unusual for
a bride to be kept at home until she attains puberty. Another oustom
connected with marriage, whioh students of comparative ethnography
will also recognize as a survival of more primitive ideas, may be
referred to here. In Rajput families of Tirhut it is considered contrary
to etiquette for a young married oouple to see each other by day so
long as the husband’s parents are alive, and in particular they
must avoid being seen together by the husband’s parents, and
must not speak to one another in their presenoe. It is of course
extremely difficult to ascertain how far a rule of this sort is
actually observed, but I am assured that young married couples are
very careful to avoid infringing it, although as they grow older
their solicitude on this point is apt to wear off.

' The remarriage of widows is strictly forbidden among the
XUjputs of Behar. Divorce is also prohibited, and when a woman

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190

is taken in adultery, she is summarily expelled from the caste, and
either beoomes a prostitute or joins herself to some religious sect of
more or less dubious morality. In oertain oases, however, where
a married couple find themselves unable to live in harmony
together, a separation is arrived at by mutual oonsent, each agreeing
to look upon the other as a parent. In suoh oases the wife returns
to her father’s house, and the husband marries again. This is not,
however, looked upon as a divoroe.

lUjputs are orthodox Hindus, and worship the Hindu divinities
jkjj. favoured by the sect to which they happen

ugl0IL to belong. By the Surajbansi division, special

honour is done to the sun, whom they regard as their eponymous
anoestor. Among minor gods Bandi and Narsingh appear to be
most in favour. Ancestors are worshipped with offerings of milk,
flowers and rice. Mondays and Wednesdays are believed to be
the most propitious days for this worship. On the 15th day of
Asin married women offer oakes and oil to the souls of their
mother-in-law, grandmother-in-law and great grandmother-in-law.
This oustom, known as the Jitia puja, has obviously been copied
from the sraddh celebrated in honour of the three immediate
descendants. The popular explanation of it is that it is intended to
express the gratitude that every married women ought to feel for her
good fortune in getting a husband. Mr. (Frierson, in Behar Peasant
Life, 1 speaks of the jitiva puja as “ a fast and worship performed by
women on the 8th of the dark half of K&rtik (late in October) for
the benefit of their children. Further inquiry on the subject would
perhaps bring out points of interest and might dear up the discre-
pancy of date

For religious and ceremonial purposes B&jputs employ Brah-
, mans, who are reoeived on equal terms by
1890 0 6 other members of the sacred order. The*

dead are burned and the ashes thrown into the Ganges or ones of its
tributaries. Sraddh is performed on the thirteenth day after death,
and on the fourteenth a feast is given to the Brahmans of the
neighbourhood. It is followed by me barki sraddh on the first anni-
versary of the death, when the members of the dead man’s family
shave their heads and faoes, and present a pinda to the deoeased,
while the Brahmans recite mantras. Then the priests and the mem-
bers of the family partake of a feast. It is said to be a tradition
that the expenditure on this ceremony must not exoeed half of that
incurred on the original sraddh . After the barkhi the tarpan or
ntf-tarpan, a daily offering of water is presented regularly by all the
sons of the deceased, and particularly by the eldest. This prac-
tice, however, is observed only by highly-educated Bdjputs, who
know their religious obligations in this matter. On the first
fifteen days of Asm the pitri paksh or ancestors’ fortnight is
observed with offerings of water to all deceased ancestors. If
a man dies sonless, leaving a wife and daughter, the sraddh and the
barki are performed by one of them, the other oeremonies being

1 Page 402 .

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RAJPUT.

omitted. Failing these the nearest agnate gotta will take upon
himself these pious duties. In the event of a man dying away from
his people and being burned or buried without the proper rites, his
body is burned in effigy by his relatives, and the other ceremonies
are performed in the usual fashion. When a man has died a sudden
or violent death, it is thought right for his son to make a pilgrimage
to Gya and perform the sraddh ceremony there in order to secure
the repose of his soul.

The high-flown titles — BhupAl, Bhupati, Bhusur, BAhuja — in
use among RAjputs, and the name Chhatri
^Owapation and social j^self indicate the exalted pretensions of the

tribe and their traditions concerning their
original occupation. Many RAjputs still ding to the belief
that Government and the trade of arms are their proper business
in life ; and these notions lead them to regard education, and more
especially the higher education, in muoh the same light as a medieval
warrior looked upon the clerkly studies of his time. For this reason
the RAjputs as a body have rather dropped behind in the modern
struggle for existence, where book learning oounts for more than
strength of arm, and the more intelligent members of the tribe are

S uite conscious that their position is by no means what it was in the
iasstcal ages of Hindu tradition. Their relations to the land still
help them to maintain a show of respectability and importance.
Many of them are zamindars, and those who hold cultivating tenures
claim in virtue of their caste a remission of rent of their homestead
lands. Th ejeth-raiyat or headman of a Behar village is frequently
a RAjput. He collects the rents and reoeives in return a yearly
allowance, known as pagrt, from the zamindar. RAjputs are never
artisans, and it is unusual to find them engaging in any kind of
trade. In theojy their social status is second only to that of the
Brahman, but in Bengal Proper, where great RAjput houses do
not exist, popular usage would, I think, place them below the Baidya
and the KAyaath. Even in Behar the BAbhans claim precedence
over them on the ground that they will not touch the handle ( parihath
or lagna) of the plough, and that they use the full upanayan ritual
when investing their children with the janeo or sacred thread, whereas
the RAjputs plough and milk oows with their own hands, and shuffle
on th * janeo in a rough-and-ready fashion when a boy gets married.

In respeot of diet the RAjputs conform generally to the practice
of high-caste Hindus. The flesh of the goat, the deer and the hare,
the pigeon, quail and ortolan may alone be eaten, and these animals, if
not killed in hunting, most be slaughtered in a particular way (jhataha)
by cutting the head off at a single stroke. Fish is lawful food. Wine
is supposed to be forbidden. As regards the taking of food from
members of other castes, the following rules are in force

A RAjput cannot take kachchi food, i.e., rice or ddl or anything
that is cooked with water from anyone bat a Brahman. Pakki
food, such as parched grain, sweetmeats and the like, he may take
from a man of any oaste higher than his own or from a DhAnuk,
Kurmi, KahAr, Lobar, Barhi, EumhAr, GoAlA, Mallah, HajjAm,
Mali, SonAr, LAheri, or Gareri, provided that no salt or turmeric haa

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192

RAJ W AR.

been used in the making. These condiments he will add himself.
Water is governed by the rules applicable to pakki food. R&jputs
may not use the hookahs of any other oaste. but may smoke tobacco

J repared by men of any caste exoept the Dosadh, Dom, Cham&r,
[usahar and Dhobi.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of
R&jputs in 1872 and 1881 : —

District.

1872.

1881.

District.

1872.

1881.

Bard wan

12.859

7,218

! Noakhali

350

168

B&nkura

9,180

13,987

: Tipp«trah

2,161

1,162

Birbhutn

7,028

8,344

i Chittagong Hill Tracts

Midnapur ...

17,003

19,573

; Patna

60,079

64,332

flughlt

< 6.530

102,918

114,402

H«wrah

...

\ 1,039

! Shababad

T<t _

183,896

207,195

24-ParganAfl ...

8,683

12,604

1 Mozufferpur

i 107.594

Nadiya

5.017

6,047

j Dnrbhauga

l 90,0*3

Jessore

1,114

903

Saran

213,348

2*3.972

Khulna

551

Champaran

69,614

80,764

Murahedabad

13,141

8,955

Monghyr

47,006

56,067

Dinaipur

1,813

2,88*.

BhRmlpur

52,679

60,491

K&jahahye ...

1.5*1

1,233

Parniah

...

23,663

48,465

Banitpar

...

2,404

2,335

Maldab

3.2u7

5.!04

Boxm

M .

3,420

372

SaniRl ParganRs ...

38,337

28,124

Pabna

664

455

Cuttack

10,728

10,782

Darjiling

8,972

6,352

Puri

£.946

3,898

Jalpigon

! 523

1,269

Balasore

2,053

2,770

Kucb Behar...

3,197

Tributary States ...

6,510

3,551

Dacca

1,665

6.362

Hasaribagh

31.387

37,404

Paridpur

901

! 533

Lohardagi

37,752

47,471

Bakargan] ...

...

962

468

Sitigbhum

1,718

1,9*9

Maimaiisinb ...

...

2,470

2,167

Man^hom

...

16,688

15,942

Chittagong ...

—

359

1,040

Tributary States ...

2,589

6,258

Jlajtoir, a Dravidian cultivating caste of Behar, Western
Bengal, and Chota Nagpur, who are probably
a branoh of one of the aboriginal races. This
opinion was held by Buohanan, who went so far as to identify them
with the Rachewars or Rajaw&rs whom he came across in Mysore.
Colonel Dalton reckoned them among the mongrel tribes. “ Tradi-
tionally,” he says, “they appear to oonnect themselves with the
Bhuiy^s; but this is only in Behar. The Rajw&rs in Serguja and
the adjoining States are peaceably-disposed cultivators, who declare
themselves to be fallen Kshatriyas : they do not, however, conform
to Hindu customs, and they are skilled in a dance called Chailo,
which I believe to be of Dravidian origin. The Rajw&rs of Bengal
admit that they are derived from the misoegenation of Kurmis
and Kols. They are looked upon as very impure by Hindus, who
will not take water from their hands.” The Rajw&rs of Behar told
Buohanan “ that their oommon ancestor was a certain Rishi, who
had two sons From the eldest are descended the Rajw&rs, who
became soldiers and obtained their noble title; from the younger
are descended the Musahars, who have obtained their name from
eating rats, whioh the Rajwdrs rejeot.” The suggestion of affinity
with the Musahars seems to support Colonel Dalton’s statement that
the Rajw&rs oonnect themselves with the Bhuiy&s, for Musahars and
Bhuiy&s are certainly closely related, if not one and the sama
On tne other hand, it should be observed that the Rajw&rs of
Gy& will not eat with BhuiyAs. The Raj wars of Manbhum have

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RAJW Alt

a tradition that they came from Nagpur. They say that the king
of that country had two daughters, the elder of whom was lawfully
married to the elder of two brothers, while the younger daughter
ran away with the younger brother. On the death of the king the
brothers fought among themselves for the kingdom, but after a time
it was settled that the one who came first to the capital on a certain
morning should be king. On his way to the city the younger brother
saw a golden orab and dismounted to get it, tying his horse to a tree.
As he was reaching for the orab, a kite soreamed over his head. He
mistook the kite’s soream for the neighing of his horse, assumed that
it had broken loose and went off to look for it. This took him so
long that he never got to Nagpur at all, but gave up his claims to the
crown and went home. The RajwAr oaste are his descendants. The
legend may well have been suggested by the name RajwAr or the
title RAjbansi. The internal structure of the oaste is shown in
_ , ... Appendix I. Some of the sections are totemistio

internal structure. _ ft fact whio h may be taken as oertainly indi-
cating Dravidian descent. The sub-castes are the following —
Angrok or Angw&r, ChapwAr, SikhariA, SukulkArA, Bar-Gohri,
Majhal-T uriyA, and Berra-RajwAr. The last three are found only
in LohardagA. The third occurs among several castes of Western
Bengal, and refers to the tract of oountry between the DAmodar and
Barakar rivers, east of the ParasnAth range of hills. The Dorns of
Behar have a section called AngwAr. All the sections are exogamous,
but in Behar the Marrik, MajhiyA, and MatwArA profess not to
intermarry with members of the BhogtA group. For the rest they
follow the standard formula for oaloulating prohibited degrees.

RajwArs marry their daughters either as infants or as adults.
Manwe. In the latter case sexual intercourse before
Mamage. marriage is condoned, as with the Mundas and

Oraons, provided that the lover marries the girl. An intrigue with
a man of another caste would of oourse be punished by summary
excommunication. The marriage olosely resembles that in use
among the Kurmis, sindurdan being the binding portion. Polygamy
is permitted. A man may have as many wives as he can afford to
maintain. A widow may marry a second time by the sangd form.
She is not bound to marry her late husband’s younger brother.
Some RajwArs of Gya and Shahabad assured me that only ohildless
widows might marry again, and that the privilege was under no
circumstances extended to a widow with children. This looks like
a first step towards the introduction of further restrictions, but I doubt
whether my informants were correot in their statement ; or, if they
were, whether the modified usage extended beyond a small number
of families. Divorce is allowed for adultery or incompatibility of
temper, and divorced wives may marry again.

The members of the caste profess to be Hindus of the Yaishnava
^ . sect, and employ degraded Brahmans (Jyosi or

glon# Maithil) for religious and ceremonial observ-

ances. In Behar they also worship GoraiyA, DihwAr, JagdambA,
and the other standard minor gods. They burn their dead and
perform a rather meagre srdddh oeremon y on the eleventh day. A

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BAM.

piece of bone is saved from the fire in order that it may be thrown
into the Ganges or the Ddmodar. The reverence thus shown for the
latter river deserves notice, as it is always associated with the funeral
rites of the aboriginal races.

The social r ank of the Rajwdrs is low, and Brahmans will not
Social statu*. ordinarily take water from their hands. Those

1 * Brahmans, however, who serve them as priests,

and the Yaishnava ascetics, who act as their spiritual guides, will
eat sweetmeats and similar pakki food in their houses. In virtue
of their abstinence from beef and pork they believe themselves to
be raised above the Bauris and Dorns ; while the fact that they eat
fowls and the leavings of the higher oastes, and indulge freely in
strong drink, cuts them off from the respectable olasses from whose
hands Brahmans will take water. The Kurmis are the lowest oaste
from whom they will take oooked food. Agriculture is their sole
occupation. Some of them are ocoupanoy raiyats, but a large pro-
portion have not risen above the condition of landless day-labourers.

The following statement shows the number and distribution
of Rajwdrs in 1872 and 1881 : —

District.

1872.

1881.

District.

1872.

1881.

Bard wan

230

Patna

3,?44

3,960

Bankura

Gya

39,484

43,773

Birbhura

136

8hahabnd

4,451

6,8«1

Xidnapur

Hughll

10,266

Mozufferpur

Saran

117

Howrah

13S

Champaran

M-Panrants

469

Monxhyr

114

Nadiya

113

Bhajralpur

Purniau

289

Murshedabad

163

218

Rajahahye

(|M##

Sll

Maldah

aaa

Bogra

Santil Parsan&s ...
Hazaribagh

6.080

Pabna

......

— *0

9,291

6,657

Darjiling

Lobardagi

Fnndpur

Singbhaiu

101

Chittagong

Manbhum

Tributary States ...

•••

10,091

11,610

15,641

14,475

Rajwir, a sept of Rdjputs in
Behar.

Rakh&l, a thar or sept of Man-
gars in Darjiling.

Rakhali, a section of Khdm-
bus in Darjiling.

Rakhi, a sub-caste of Kalwdrs
in Behar.

Raksa, a section of the Kan-
aujid sub-caste of Goalas in
Behar.

Raks&in, a sept of the
Suryabansi sub-tribe of Rajputs
in Behar.

Raksel, a sept of Rajputs in
Behar.

Rakshit, Rakhit , a title of
Baidyas, of Dakshin-Rdrhi and
Bangaja Kayasths; B&ruis,
Tamolis, and Telis, of Mayards
and Sutradhars in Bengal.

Raksise, a mul or section of
the Chhamulia Madhesid sub-
caste of Halwdis in Behar.

Rakw&r, a section of Rdjputs
in Behar.

Rim, (i) a title applied to
Kurmis in Behar until by age or
personal influence they attain a
leading position in the village,
when they are called Marar or
Mdhton ; (ii) a title of Dosddhs ;
(iii) a section of the Mahmud-
dbdz sub-caste of Ndpits.

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RAMJdYA.

195

RANGOMUNGh

Rdmdiyd, an endogamous
branch of the Chauan sub-caste
of Kurmis in Behar who are said
to haye been outcasted for eating
by mistake for a goat the body
of a 4 dog which had been roasted
in a fire which burned down a
village. The Rdm6iyds deny the
truth of this story, but, while
claiming to belong to the Chauan
sub-caste of Kurmis, can assign
no reason for their exclusion from
rights of food and intermarriage.

R&mdnuja, a seot of Vaish-
navas.

R&m&vat, a sect of Vaish-
navas.

Ramayd, a section of Bdb-
hans in Behar.

Bdmdyat, Rdmdth , a celibate
sect of Yaishnavas who worship
Rama and Krishna, wear faspaita,
and are usually treated as Brah-
mans.

Rdmer-Dhobd, a sub-caste of
Dhobds in Eastern Bengal.

^Rdmgarhid, a sept of Baird-
gis and Mundas in Chota Nag-
pur.

Rdmi dh&mi ke as&mi, a
section of the Banodhid and
Jaiswdr Kalwdrs in Behar.

s JLawjatti, a caste of danoers,
singers, and prostitutes, synony-
mous with Gandharvin.

Rdmkisdn, a section of the
Biydhut and Khariddhd Kal-
wdrs in Behar.

R&mp&i, a section of Bdbhans
in the north of Manbhum to
whom the members of other sec-
tions will not give their daugh-
ters in marriage, though they
allow the men to marryRdmpai
women.

Rdmpuri» a section of Bdis
Sondrs in Behar.

R&mpurid, a section of the
Banodhid and Jaiswdr Kalwdrs
in Behar.

R&mud&n, a section of Kdmis
in Darjiling.

Rdnd, a title of the Bhar and
May ard castes ; a pangat or section
of Dosadhs ; a section of the Suraj-
bansi division of R&jputs in
Behar; a title of Dakshm-Rdrhi
and Bangaja Kdyasths; a title
of Aguris and Sutradhars ; of
Kumhdrs in Behar ; of Mangars
in Darjiling; a section of the
Magahiyd sub-caste of Dorns in
Behar.

Rdn& Lamsani, a that or sept
of the Das-gurung sub-tribe of
Gurungs in Darjiling.

Ranasinha or Samarsinha ,
lion of the fight, a title of Khan-
ddits in Orissa.

R&nauchhd, a thar or sept of
Khambus in Darjiling.

Ranauni f a sept of the
Suryabansi sub-tribe of Rdjputs
in Behar.

Rancho, a section of Bdgdis
in Western Bengal.

R&ne, a section of Kanaujid
Lohdrs in Behar.

Ranga, a title of Dakshin-
Rdrhi and Bangaja Kdyasths.

R&ngd, a sept of Dhimdla in
the Darjiling Terai.

Rangataba, a yellow bird, a
totemistic sept of Judngs in
Orissa.

j Rdngdhdri, Rangdhdrid, a maker
of tin (ranga) or pewter orna-
ments, an occupation followed by
Mahomedans ; also a synonym for
Sondr.

Rangomung, a sept of Lepchas
in Darjiling.

n 2

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BANGPIAB.

196

BX8T0GI.

Rangpi&r, a section of the
Biy&hut and Kharid&h& Kal-
wArs in Behar.

Rang ret, Rangrdj, a dyer, an
occupation usually followed by
Mahomedans.

Rangroz, a functional group
of Jugis.

Rani Poka, a red worm, a
totemistio sept of Mundas in
Chota Nagpur.

Ranka f a seotion of OswAls in
Behar.

Rankankar, a sept of Kaurs in
Chota Nagpur.

RAnki or KalAI, a sub-caste
(Mahomedan) of KalwArs in
Behar.

RankwAr, a sept of BAjputs
iu Behar.

RansadiyA, a section of BAb-
bans in Behar.

Ranub&d» a section of Kum-
hArs in Singbhum.

Ranyaceiunya, a sept of
ChakmAs in the Hill Traots of
Chittagong.

Ranyin, a sept of ChakmAs in
the Hill Traots of Chittagong.

RAorh, a seotion of MaghayA
KumhArs in Behar.

RAori, a title of KAndus in
Behar.

Raot, a totemistio sept of Dorns
and Chamars in Chota Nagpur.

RaotiA, crab, a totemistio sept
of Pans in Chota Nagpur.

RApungchhA, a thar or sept of
Khambus in Darjiling.

RArh-Asram, a sub-caste of
MayarAs in Central Bengal.

RArher RArhi, a sub-caste of
Sunria in Eastern Bengal.

RArhi , a sub-caste of Brahmans
in the Lower Provinces of Bengal
who derive their name from the
BArh, or the high-lying alluvial
tract on the west bank of the river
Bhagirathi. They claim descent
from five KanaujiA Br ahman s
brought by Adisur to perform
oertain ceremonies whioh the looal
Brahmans, who are now known
as Saptasatis, were incompetent
to undertake; a sub-caste of
Kewats in Orissa ; of KumhArs,
TAntis, Telis ; of Baidyas, Bands,
Kayasths, GoAlas, Kaibarttas,
Jugis, Subamabaniks, and Sunns
in Bengal ; of KAmArs in
Murshedabad, and in Pabna also
called DAs-SamAj ; a group of
PhulkAtA MAlis.

Rarhi-MAI, a sub-caste of MAls
in the SantAl ParganAs.

RArhi ya-SamAj, a sub-caste
of DhobAs in Hughli.

RAriA, a seotion of GoAlAs in
the North-Western Provinces and
Behar.

RasAi li, a section of KAmis ; a
thar or sept of Mangars in
Darjiling.

RasAkmAre, a mul or section
of the Naomulia or Majraut sub-
caste of GoAlAs in Behar.

RAsamba, mushrooms that
grow on ant-hills, a totemistio
sept of JuAngs in Orissa.

RasAunmare, a mul pv seotion
of the Naomulia or Majraut sub-
caste of GoAlAs in Behar.

RAs-rishi, a section of Gan-
dhabaniks in Bengal.

RAst, a title of GoAlAs in Behar.

a trading oaste of Behar, usually engaged in selling
doth and money-lending, but sometimes also dealing in grain and
native medioines. They practise two peculiar forms of petty
money-lending by bahi, that is by entry in books of account without

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RASTOGT.

197

. RAUNIA.

the security of a separate bond. These are known as augdhi or ugihi
and rozdhi. Mr. Hoey gives 1 the following aooount of them : —

“Augdhi is lending of money to be repaid with interest at 20
per cent, in monthly instalments. Thus, if a Rdstogi lends on the 1st
January ten rupees, he receives one rupee on the first of eaoh month
for twelve months, and thereby realises twelve rupees, of which two
rupees are interest. A Rdstogi’s augdhi bahi is a curiosity. It is
ruled like a chess-board, but has twelve columns. As eaoh month’s
instalment is realised, it is entered in a square until the twelve squares
are filled. He generally keeps also a separate bahi, in which the
principal is noted when lent. It may, however, be noted in the
margin of his check-pattern account. Rozdhi is money lent to be
realised in daily instalments with interest at 25 per cent. Thus, if
a rupee be lent, one-half anna (taka roz) will be realised daily. The
aooount of this money is kept in a similar way, but the account-book
will be ruled in lines of 40 squares. A Rdstogi keeps his acoounts by
looality, that is, he has several khets, as he calls them; one, say, is
Saadatganj, another Hasanganj, a third Deori Agha Mir, and so on.
Debtors are called asdmis , and the amount to be collected is called
lagan, A separate set of aooount-books is kept for eaoh khet, and
a servant (generally a Brahman on Rs. 3 per mensem) is employed to
collect eaoh khet”

Mr. Sherring mentions three sub-oastes — Amethi, Indrapati,
and Mauharid, which do not intermarry. Rdstogis marry their
daughters as infants, forbid widows to remarry, and do not reoognize
divoroe. In matters of diet they affeot to be extremely punctilious,
and thus married women of the caste will not eat food that has been
prepared, or even touched by their husbands.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of
Rdstogis in 1881. They were not returned separately in 1872 : —

District.

1881.

| District.

1881.

- ... ... ... ...

Gja

Shahabad

Mocufferpur

Darbhanga

Swan

258

186

Champaran

Mongnvr

Purniah

Hazaribagh

LohardagA

296

164

1,470

Rat f a section of Awadhid
Hajj&ms in Behar.

Rath id, a sub-tribe of Eaurs
in Chota Nagpur.

Rathitara» a section of the
P&soh&tya Baidik Brahmans in
Bengal ; a Eshatrapeta gotra or
section of Brahmans.

Ratn&bali, a g&in of theBhar-
adw&ja gotra of B&rendra Brah-
mans in Bengal.

Ratwarii, a section of Loh^rs
in Behar.

Raunfi, a synonym for Raw&ni,
q.v.

R&uni&i a section of the S&t-
mulia Maghayd sub-oaste of Ban-
das in Behar.

Trade and Manufactures qf Northern India , p. 144.

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BAUNIAB.

198

Rauni&r, Raunia, Noni&r , a sub-caste of Baniyis 1 in Behar.
Writing of the members of this group in the North-West Provinoes,
Mr. Neafield says : — u Raunia, more fully written RavaniyA, is from
ravati, which means the orying or hawkmg of wares for sale.” In
another place he adds : — “ The Raunia (which means literally a
crier) moves in a oirole of some eight or ten villages surrounding
his own ; and if he cannot get cash for his grain, he barters it for
smces, sugar, oondensed treacle, eto. In these days he is seldom
aole to live by trade alone, and in the intervals of business lie
raises his own crops. But trade, and trade only, was his original
function.”

The RauniArs of Behar profess to have oome from the North-
_ West Provinoes, and their allegation is likely

a rtrwfam, enough to be correct. They are divided into
exogamous sections (muls or gotra *), but the only section-names
I have been able to ascertain are Ekadasi and Eicassi, referring
possibly to the number of families comprised, or supposed to be
comprised, in each seotion. Their titles are S&hu and Modi, which
are common to them and to many other trading groups. In
ChampAran they have broken up into two endogamous groups —
Chhatri and Samri, the former of whom olaim to be RAjputs from
the North-West Provinoes who were degraded for intermarrying
with women of the BaniyA caste.

RauniArs profess to marry their daughters as infants, but
I am informed that cases of girls being married
arrUge * after puberty are not unoommon where the

S arents are poor or for any special reason there has been difficulty in
nding a husband. It is clear therefore that the caste does not take
the extreme sacerdotal view of the necessity of infant-marriage
which prevails among Hindus of the higher classes, especially in
Bengal Proper. Their marriage ceremony is of the standard type,
and a price (tilak) is paid to the parents of the bridegroom.
Polygamy is allowed, but is rarely resorted to in praotioe, except
when the first wife proves barren. Widows are allowed to remarry
by the sagat form, of which sindurddn is the binding portion. The
widow is under no obligation to marry her deceased husband’s
younger brother. Divoroe is not generally recognized; but in
ChampAran it appears to be the practioe to bring cases of unchastity
before a panohAyat, which makes an order of divoroe ; and if the
offence has been committed with a member of the caste, the woman
is allowed to marry again by sagai.

In their religious and ceremonial observances the RauniArs are
Religion. orthodox Hindus and employ Brahmans, whose

social position is in no way affected by serving
them. RauniArs are not conspicuous for adhesion to any particular
sect, but in some parts of the country they are said to regard

1 I have treated the KauniAr as a sub-caste of BaniyA, instead of as a
separate caste, in order to avoid doing violence to popular usage. Both
Natives and Europeans speak of the Baniya caste, and ignore the fact that the
expression denotes a group comprising several distinct castes, which cannot
now be traced to any common stock. The subject is discussed at greater
length in the article on BaniyA.

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BAUNIAR.

199

EAUTIA.

MahAdeva as their tutelary deity. Like the Agarwals, they pay
special reverenoe to Lakhsmi, and oelebrate the DiwAli festival with

S eat. pomp. They also worship Bandi, GoraiyA, Sokha, and
AhAbirji as household or village gods.

Trading in grain, doth, eto., and lending money, are their special
Occ nati functions, but of late years some of thorn have

upation. taken to agriculture, and a few have risen,

probably as a consequence of money-lending transactions, to be
zemindars. In Champaran Rauniyars are found as ocoupanoy
raiyats, but suoh cases are rare.

Rausan, a synonym for Teli.

Raut, a sub-tribe of EharwArs
in Southern LohardagA.

RAut, Rahut , a title of Amats,
Ghamars, Dhanuks, DosAdhs,
Gonrhis, Goalas, Kadars, Kum-
hars, Nagars, Pargahs, Raj-
puts, and Sunris in Behar; in
Bengal of the BhAt Brahmans.
As a title of Malis in Behar,
it seems to be in process of
development into a sub- caste,
for the Raut Malis intermarry
among themselves; a title of
Beldars, NuniAs, Barais, Kahdrs,

Binds, and of Dhobis in Behar ;
a section and a title of Kurmis in
Behar ; a sept of ThArus ; a title
of Gareris ; a title of ChAsAs and
KhandAits in Ghota Nagpur and
Orissa; a section of DharkAr Dorns
in Behar; a title of BhuiyAs; a sept
of Mundas in Ghota Nagpur.

Rautar, a section of SonArs in
Behar.

RautAr, a sub-tribe of ThArus
in Behar.

Rauti, a seotion of Mahesris
in Behar.

a landholding and cultivating caste of Chota Nagpur,
Origin. probably Dravidian in its original affinities,

but since refined in features and complexion
by a large infusion of Aryan blood. The name Rautia suggests
some connexion with Rajputs, and Mr. Beames has noticed that the
oognate term Raut is used in some districts to denote an inferior
Rajput, “the corruption of the name betokening the corruption of
the caste .” 1 Their traditions say that they formerly dwelled in
Siuhal-dwip (Ceylon), whence they migrated to Barhar, in Mirzapur.
In the time of the Emperor Jahangir some Rautias were serving as
sentinels in the fort at GwAlior when Maharaja Duijan Sahel ChutiA
Nagpur was imprisoned there for failure to pay his tribute to
Dehli.* During his confinement the Rautias treated the Raja
kindly, and he repaid their good offices on his release by giving
them lands in parganA PanAri of LohardagA. Further grants of
villages, groups of villages, and entire parganAs were afterwards
made to them in jdgir , aud many of these are in existence at the
present day. The titles of Baraik, Gaunjhu, and Kotwar Woie at
the same time conferred upon them.

1 Supplemental Glossary, vol. i, p. 24.

* See extracts f’-om Tuzuk-i-Jah&nglri and MS. history of ChutiA
Nagpur in J. A . S . B. for 1871, and Statistical Account qf Bengal , vol. zvi,
p. 447 et seq .

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RAUTIX.

200

The Bautins are divided into two endogamous sub-castes —

T . . Bargohri and Chhot-gohri. The origin of

Internal structure. ^ ^ obe<mre Ufa® Rautiis them-

selves tell an absurd story to aooount for it. They say that the
Bar-gohris were the first to arrive in their present habitat. When
the Chhot-gohris came they were asked with what oooking pots and
on what fire-plaoes they had oooked their food after the Bar-gohris
had started. On their replying that they had used the pots and
fire-plaoes left behind by the Bar-gohris, but had cleaned them, the
latter straightway took offence, and from that time forth have
refused to eat cooked food (kachi) with the Chhot-gohri. Following
the analogy of similar schisms in cartes formerly united, it seems
more likely either that the Chhot-gohri were the first settlers and
were outcasted for some suoh breach of caste rules as people are apt
to oommit, or to be taxed with committing, when they settle in
outlandish parts of the country, or that the Chhot-gohri axe the
offspring of alliances between the Bar-gohri and women of inferior
caste or purity of lineage. At the present day the Chhot-gohri eat
fowls and wild pig and drink spirits, all of whioh things are
forbidden for members of the higher group.

Within eaoh sub-oaste we find a group called Berrd Rautifi,
who are admittedly descendants of Rauti&s by oonoubines of other
castes. Although not strictly endogamous, the Berras observe
certain special restrictions in the matter of marriage. Thus a Berri
whose mother was a R&jput will not marry a girl whose mother
was a GMsi

Both sub-castes have a long list of sections (pdris or got), whioh
will be found in the Appendix. The fact that the list contains
totemistic, eponymous, and territorial names, tells on the whole in
favour of the view that the Rautias are people of mixed descent. The
rule that the totem is taboo to its bearers seems only to apply to the
animal-totems, whioh may be named, but not killed or eaten ; for
a Rautii of the sword or axe groups is not forbidden to use those
weapons, nor is a man of the K&si group forbidden to touoh the
grass from whioh his section is supposed to be descended.

The section name goes by the male side, and the prohibition
attached to it affects only a man’s own section and does not prevent
him from marrying a woman belonging to the same section as his
mother. This simple rule of exogamy is therefore supplemented
by a table of prohibited degrees made up, like our own, by
enumerating the individual relatives whom a man may not many,
and not, as is more usual, by prohibiting intermarriage with certain
large ol asses of relations or with the descendants within certain
degrees of particular relations.

Girls are married either as infants or adults, usually between
Marriage the ages of eight and eighteen. Sexual lioense

before marriage is not openly reoognized, as it
is among the aborigines of Chota Nagpur; but I am informed
that grown-up girls enjoy considerable liberty in this respect, it
being understood that in case of pregnancy a husband will be at
onoe forthcoming. In theory polygamy is allowed without any

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201

RAUTI*.

restriction being laid on the number of wives or any antecedent
condition being insisted on, such as that the first wife must be
barren or be inflicted with an incurable disease in order to entitle
her husband to take another wife. In actual life, however, it is
unusual to find a man with more than three or four wives. One
simple reason for this is that few men can afford to keep many wives
or have house-room to accommodate them, as by universal oustom
each wife must have a separate room.

A widow is allowed to marry again by the sagai form, and
it is considered right for her to marry her late husband’s younger
brother. Under no circumstances can she marry the elder brother.
If she marries an outsider, her late husband’s brother, father,
or unole have the right to the custody of all her children,
both male and female. In any case she acquires no rights in her
late husband’s property, the whole of which passes to his eldest
son, subject to oertain obligations to provide, by way of main-
tenance, for younger brothers. If a widow marries her late
husband’s younger brother, her children by him are not deemed
the children of her first husband, nor have they any rights in respect
of his property.

The ritual used at the marriage of a widow is veiy simple.
Five married women whose husbands are living take a sari, a pair
of lac bracelets, and a little vermilion {sindur) to the bridegroom
and get him to touch each article. They then return to the bride,
attire her in the sari and bracelets, and daub the vermilion on her
forehead. As in the case of a regular marriage, the proceedings
conclude with a feast to the friends and relatives of the newly-
maxried couple.

A woman may be divoroed for adultery or for eating with
a member of another oaste. For lighter offences than these, separation
is the only punishment awarded ; and in that case the husband is
bound to maintain his wife. A divorced woman may not marry
again. If she lives with a man, she ranks as a concubine and her
children are illegitimate.

The ceremony performed at the marriage of a virgin
bride contains several features of a primitive and non-Aryan
character. In the first instance, both parties go through the
form of marriage to a mango tree (ambd blhd). The essential
and binding portions of the ritual are the knotting together
of the clothes of the bride and bridegroom and sindurddn,
which is effected by smearing on the bride’s forehead a drop of
blood drawn from the little finger of the bridegroom, and vice
versd. S&kadwipi Brahmans officiate, and offerings are made to
Gauri and Ganesa.

Marriages are arranged by the parents or guardians of the
parties, who have no freedom of ohoioe in the matter. Professional
marriage-brokers are unknown. The first offer is made by the father
of the bridegroom, and a bride-price (ddli taka), varying according
to the means of the bridegroom’s parents, is paid to the parents of
the bride, by whom it is retained. No portion of the bride-prioe
becomes the special property of the bride.

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RAUTIA.

202

The Mitdkshard commentary, which forma the personal law of
Buooeaaion. most Hindus in Lohardaga, does not apply to

Rautids, who are governed by special customs
of their own. The eldest son by a regularly-married (bihdi) wife
inherits the whole of his father’s property, subject to the obligation
of creating maintenance grants in favour of his younger brothers.
These grants are not equal in value, but are supposed to decrease in
the order of age of the grantees, so that each younger brother gets
a smaller grant than his immediate elder, and so on. Instances,
however, have occurred among the Bar-gohn RautiAs in which, with
the consent of the eldest son, an entire property has been equally
divided. Sons by a sagai wife are inoluded in this arrangement, but
get smaller grants than sons by a bihdi wife. The rule that sons by
a bihdi wife take precedence of sons by a sagai wife is subject to the
important exception that an elder brother’s widow, though married
by the sagai form, ranks in all respects as a bihdi wife, and her sons
have the full rights of succession to their father. This principle was
affirmed by the Civil Courts in a case which occurred a few years
ago. One of the Rautia Barfiks of Basia died leaving a widow and
infant son ; the widow married in the sogai form her late husband’s
younger brother, who was already married to a bihdi wife. Both of
the wives bore sons, the sagai wife a few months earlier than the
bihdi wife. Meanwhile the infant son of the original proprietor died :
the whole property passed to his brother, and on his death was
disputed between his sons. It was held that the son of the sagai
wife, being the eldest, was entitled to succeed under the oustom of
the caste, and that the son of the bihdi wife had only a right to
maintenance. It will be seen from this instance that a brother
excludes a widow from succession. The latter is in fact entitled
only to maintenance, and may forfeit even that by misconduct
or infringement of caste rules. Brothers and uncles, or their
descendants, exclude daughters and their descendants. Succession
indeed is strictly agnatic throughout; the eldest male of the
eldest line taking the entire inheritance subject to the obligation
to provide maintenance for relatives within oertain degrees on a
scale progressively diminishing iu relation to the age and propinquity
in relationship of the claimants. The distinction between ancestral
and self-acquired property, whioh has acquired such prominence in
the standard Hindu law, does not seem to be very dearly recognized
in the customary law of the Rautids. I gather, however, that such
property is not subject to the rule of primogeniture, but is
ordinarily divided equally among the male descendants.

Step-sons are not entitled to maintenance from the estate of
their step-father. Owing, however, to the fact that a widow may
marry her late husband’s younger brother and may not many his
eldest brother, it happens that a large proportion of the step-sons
among the Rautids are really the heirs to the estates of which their
step-fathers happen for the time being to be in charge. A ghar dijud ,
or son-in-law who lives with his wife in his father-in-law’s household,
retains his claims on his natural father’s property, but acquires
no right to a maintenance grant from his father-in-law’s estate.

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203

BAUT IX.

Adoption is unknown — a oiroumstanoe from which we may either
infer that the Rauti&s are free from the curse of childlessness, so
oommon in the higher ranks of Hindus, or that one of the
inducements to adopt sons has been removed by the rule regarding
land referred to in the next paragraph.

In the event of a Rautid dying without male heirs, his immov-
able property reverts to his superior landlord or the legal represen-
tative of the person by whom the land was originally granted.
In such cases the landlord is expected to make some small provision
for the maintenance of the females of the family. His movable
property goes to the person who performs his funeral rites.

An elder brother can transfer to a younger brother all his
rights in the family property, but the effect of such a transfer
is limited to his own lifetime, and does not curtail the rights of his
son, who will succeed, in preference to the unole on attaining his
majority.

The religion of the Rautiis may best be described as a mixture
ReJ . . of the primitive animism characteristic of the

WUm aboriginal races and the debased form of

Hinduism which has been disseminated in Chota Nagpur by a class
of Brahmans markedly inferior in point of learning and ceremonial
purity to those who stand forth as the representatives of the oaste
in the great centres of Hindu civilization. Among the Bar-gohri
Rautiis many have of late years become Kabirpanthis ; the rest,
with most of the Chhot-gohri and the Berras of both sub-castes, are
Rimiyat Yaishnavas. A few only have adopted the tenets of the
Saiva sects. Rama, Ganesa, Mahadeva, and Garni are the favourite
deities, whose worship is conducted by Sakadwipi Brahmans more or
less in the orthodox fashion. Behind the fairly definite personalities
of these greater gods there loom in the background, through a fog
of ignorance and superstition, the dim shapes of Bar-pahar (the
Marang Burn or mountain of the Mundas) ; Bura-buri, the supposed
ancestors of mankind ; the seven sisters who soatter cholera, small-
pox, and cattle-plague abroad ; Goraii, the village god — a sort of
rural Terminus ; and the myriad demons with which the imagination
of the Kolhs peoples the trees, rooks, streams, and fields of its
surroundings.

To Bar-pah 6r are offered he-buffaloes, rams, he-goats, fowls,
milk, flowers, and sweetmeats ; the animals in each case being riven
some rice to ohew and deoked with garlands of flowers before being
sacrificed. When offered in pursuance of a special vow, the animal is
called chardol , and is slain in the early morning in the sarnd or
sacred grove outside the village ; rioe, ghi, molasses, vermilion, flowers,
and bel leaves being presented at the same time. No female may
be present at the oeremony. The carcase of the victim is distributed
among the worshippers, but no part of it maybe taken into the village,
and it is cooked and eaten on the spot, even the remnants being
buried in the sarnd at the end of the feast. The head is eaten by
the man who made the vow and the members of his family, but no
others share in it, owing to the belief that whoever partakes of the
head would thereby render himself liable to perform a similar pujd.

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204

When a buffalo is sacrificed, the Rautids do not eat the flesh them-
selves, but leave the carcase to the Mundas, Kharias, and other beef-
eating folk who may happen to be present.

To the seven sisters (devis) and their brother Bhairo a rude
shrine (devigarhi) is erected in the centre of every village, consisting
of a raised plinth five oubits square oovered by a tiled or thatchea
roof resting on six posts of gulaichi trees (Plumeria). In the
middle of the plinth, on a line running north and south, stand
seven little mounds of dried mud, representing the seven god-
desses, while a smaller mound on one side stands for Bhairo. In
front of the Devigarhi , at some ten or fifteen cubits distance, is a
larger mound representing Goraiya, the village god, to whom pigs
are sacrificed by the village priest (pdhan ) and by men of the
Dosadh caste. Regarding the names and functions of the seven
sisters there seems to be muoh uncertainty. Some Rautias enumerate
the following : —

Burhia Mti or SitalA.

Kankarin M&i.

Kali M&i.

Kuleswari Mdi.

B&gheswari Mai.

Mareswari MaL

DulhdriMdL

Others substitute Jw&li-mukhi, Vindhyabdsini, Malat Mdi, and
Jogini&M&i for the last four. Jwala-mukhi is a place of pilgrimage
in the Lower Himalayas north of the Fan j 6b, where inflammable
gas issues from the ground and is believed to be the fire created
by Parbati when she desired to become a sati. Vindhyabdsini is
a common title of Sitala Devi, who presides over small-pox
throughout Northern India. I cannot find out which sisters are
supposed to be responsible for cholera and cattle-plague.
Kmeshwari (kul = ‘ tiger ’ in Munddri) and Bagheswari apparently
have to do with the tiger. He-goats, flowers, fruit, and bel leaves
are offered to the seven sisters in front of the devi-gurhi. Women
and ohildren are present at the worship. A Sakadwipi Brahman
presides, but does not slay the victims.

The following are the festivals observed by the Rautids : —

(1) Nawa Khani — eating new rice with milk, molasses, and

Festivals. ghi. On the 12th of the light half of Bhddon

(middle of September) and the 15th of the light
half of Aghan (middle of November). These periods correspond
respectively to the harvesting of the low land and high land rice
crops.

(2) Jitia parab.— On the 8th of the dark half of Asin (end
of September). The females of the village, after fasting a day,
bring a twig from * jitia pipal tree (Ficus religiosa ) and an ear of
rice, and plant them in the courtyard of a house, usually that of
the ohief man of the village. Vermilion, arwd or rice husked
without boiling, flowers, and sweetmeats, are offered to the twig.
Dancing, singing, and processions of various kinds follow, and in

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RAUTIA.

the morning, after watching the twigs all night, the women offer
mdnr or rice gruel to their deceased ancestors.

(3) DasaharA— corresponding to the Devi-pujA and VijayA
dasmi of the Hindus. — On the 10th of the light half of Asin (early in
October).

(4) Debathan — a fast, followed by eating various kinds of
boiled fruit and roots— observed only by bachelors and spinsters on
the eleventh of the light half of Kartik (middle of November).

(5) Ganesh Chauth. — On the 4th of the dark half of MAgh
(middle of January). An image of Ganesa is made out of oow-dung
and is worshipped with laddus or cakes of til, legends being recited
at the same time.

(6) Phagua — corresponding to the Holi of the Hindus. — On
the 15th of the light half of FhAgun (middle of March), when
ancestors are propitiated.

(7) Karma.— On the 11th of the light half of BhAdon (begin-
ning of September). This festival is similar to the JitiA, except that
a branch of a karam tree ( Nauclea cordi/olia) is planted in the court-
yard and the fasting is not continuous as in the Jitiya Parab.

The foregoing festivals are observed by all RautiAs. The more
Hinduised members of the caste add to them the Rath-jatra, the
Janmashtami, the Ramnabami, and the Ind Parab.

The dead are usually disposed of by burning, except in the
tyj , , case of Kabirpanthi RautiAs, who are buried

standing upright and facing to the north. In
the former case the corpse, covered with a new cloth, is taken to the
place of cremation (masdn) and there shaved, bathed, and olothed in
a new waistcloth and sheet. If the body be that of a woman whose
husband is alive, it is bathed, anointed with oil, and dressed in a new
sari . In the case of a widow the oiling is omitted. The oorpse is
then placed on the funeral pile with the head to the north, and the
chief mourner, lighting a torch made of five dry twigs of a bel tree
tied to the end of a bit of wood and soaked in ghi, walks round the
pile seven times, applies the torch to the mouth of the deceased, and
then sets fire to the pile. Before doing so however, he takes a
portion of the sheet in whioh the oorpse is dressed and wraps up in
it a knife or a piece of iron. This piece of cloth must be kept for
ten days. After the body has been consumed, the ashes are collected
in a new earthen vessel (ghantt). On returning home the mourners
wash their feet with water previously plaoed for them outside the
house. Inside the courtyard a shallow brass dish (thdli) is laid ready
with leaves of the tut si ( Ocymum sanctum) and kareli (Momordica
charantia ), one pice, and a vessel of water. Some person, not a
member of the family, pours a little water into the hand of each
mourner, who drinks it o ft For ten days after the cremation the
ashes of the deceased (santh) are hung up in the vessel in whioh they
were plaoed. During this time the chief mourner must make daily
libations to the ashes, and must keepon his person the piece of sheet
and the iron already referred to. He may not change his clothes,
sleep on a bed, or eat salt, and he oan only take one meal a day,
which he must cook himself. At the end of this time the ashes are

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206

either buried at the mama, or, vjhere the family are wealthy enough
to undertake the journey, are kept for transport to Benares or Gya.
On the tenth day he and the other relatives bathe, shave, anoint
themselves with a mixture of oil and oil-oake, and put on elean
clothes. The ohief mourner also offers to the deceased ten cakes
(pinda) made of rice, milk, linseed, barley, and honey. On the
eleventh day the regular trdddh ceremony is performed with the
assistance of a Kanaujia, or, failing him, of a Sakadwipi Brahmau
who mutters unintelligble nonsense, supposed to be Yedio texts, and
the Kantaha or Mahabr&hman is fed and receives presents. On the
twelfth day Sakadwipi Brahmans and friends of different castes are
entertained, and one pinda is offered in order that the deceased may
be united to the oompany of ancestors. On the thirteenth day
relatives are fed and final purification is obtained. The anniversary
of the death is celebrated only once ( barkhi sraddh). While this is
going on no marriage can take place in the family ; and in order to
avoid this inconvenience the barkhi srdddh is often performed some
months before a year has elapsed from the time of death. Offerings
to ancestors in general ( tarpan ) are made through the agenoy of
Brahmans on the 15th of the dark half of Asin (end of September),
and by the people themselves at the Naw6 Khani, Jitia, and PhaguA
festivals. Childless relatives, lepers, persons who die a violent death,
and women who die in child-birth, get only one pinda, and are not
counted as ancestors. Lepers are usually buried.

The Bauti&s do not perform any of the ceremonies usual among
_ other castes during pregnancy. At child-birth

assistance is rendered by the Jlusram or
Dagrin, who cuts the umbilical cord. The ceremonies of chhatthi ,
bar hi, and ekaisi are performed on the sixth, twelfth, and twenty-first
days after birth. If the child is born under an unlucky star (asubh
lagan), a fourth oeremony, called Jataisi, is added on the twenty-
seventh day, at which Brahmans are fed, and Gauri, Ganesa,
Mahadeo, and the Kul devatas or family gods worshipped. The
father of the child does not lie up after its birth, or give up his
ordinary occupations, but he is supposed to contract impurity
(chhutkd) by reason of the event, and must keep awsy from his
neighbours until after the sixth day, when, if a poor man, he is
purified by bathing and by giving a feast to his relatives and to
J^rahmans. The richer a man is, tne longer is his term of impurity.
Tolerably well-to-do Rautias remain impure till the twelfth day,
while the wealthier of the castes cannot get purified till the
twenty-first.

When a child is six months old, its first meal of rice is com-
memorated— the ceremony of munghuti , followed by mundan or
tonsure. The effect of this latter rite is to remove from the
mother the last traoes of the pollution of ohild-birth, and to qualify
to eat flesh and to worship the family gods. Earnabedh, the
boring of a boy’s ears by the village barber, is done between the
ages of six and fourteen, and is deemed to admit a boy among
the grown men of the caste. Kabirpanthi members of the Bar-
gohn sub-caste assume the sacred thread ( janeo ) when initiated

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RAUTLK.

into the tenets of the sect The thread so worn is a Chhatri janeo,
which differs from a Brahman’s in the form of the knot with
which it is tied.

The Rautias, though less plagued by the terrors of the unseen

8u rstiti world than are the Mundas and Oraons, have

** . ° n *’ certain superstitions which are worth recording.
pm Women who die in child-birth, persons killed

by a tiger, and all ojhas or exorcists, are liable after death to
reappear as bhuts, or malevolent ghosts, and give trouble to the living.
In such cases an exorcist (ojha or mati) is called in to identify the
spirit at work, and to appease it by gifts of money, goats, fowls,
or pigs. Usually the spirit is got rid of in a few months, but some
are specially persistent and require annual worship to induce them
to remain quiet. Spirits of this type, who were great exorcists
or otherwise men of note during their life-time, often extend their
influence over several families, and eventually attain the rank of
a tribal god.

Babu Bakhal Das Haidar, Manager of the Chutia Nagpur
estate, gives the following instance of exorcism from his personal
experience. In December 1884, when the Manager was in camp
at the foot of the Biragain hills in LohardagA, a Kurmi woman
of Kukui was killed by a tiger, and the tiger-demon in her form
was supposed to be haunting the village. An ojhd who was sent
for to fay the ghost, took a young man to represent the tiger-
demon, and after oertain incantations put him into a kind of mes-
meric condition, in which he romped about on all fours, and generally
demeaned himself like a tiger. A rope was then tied round his loins
and he was dragged to a cross-road, where the volent fit passed
off and he became insensible. In this condition he remained until
the ojha reoited oertain mantra* and threw rioe on him, when he
regained his senses, and the demon was pronounced to have quitted
the village.

Rautias believe military service to have been their original

Occu tion. occupation, but this is little more than a
ccupa ion. distant memory of times long past, and at the

present day most members of the caste in LohardagA are settled
agriculturists. The ohief men of the caste hold taluks , jdgirs , bdraik
grants, and similar tenures paying quit-rents direct to the Maharaja
of Chutia Nagpur, while the rank and file are raiyats paying light
rents and possessing ocoupanoy rights. A few only are found in
the comparatively reduoed position of tenants of raja's lands at full
rents. In many of the tenures and occupancy holdings khuntkdti
rights, entitling the tenant to hold at a low quit-rent, are olaimed ;
while others are korkar f paying only one-half of the standard rates
of rent.

Socially the caste ranks fairly high, and Brahmans will take

Social statu*. water and sweetmeats from their hands. Bar-
gohri Rautias will not eat oooked food, smoke,
or drink with any but members of their own sub-caste ; but they
will take sweetmeats from. Brahmans, Rajputs, and Srawaks.
Chhot-gohris are equally particular about oooked food, but will take

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EAUTIA.

208

water and sweetmeats from, and will smoke with, BhogUs, Ahirs,
Jhoras, and Bhuyiis. They also drink spirits and fermented liquors,
and eat wild pigs and fowls, all of whioh are forbidden for the
Bar-gohri sub-caste.

The Chhot-gohri Rautias have a representative assembly
(mandli) for groups of from five to fifteen
^Representative mmm- y fllages, which decides questions of caste usage.

Each village sends one member to the mandli ,
which is presided over by an official called mahant , whose office
is hereditary. When the mahant is a minor, his duties are carried
on by an adult member of his family or by any Rauti£ unanimously
chosen for this purpose by the mandli. The orders of the mandli
are enforoed by fines, by refusing to eat and drink with the offender,
and by depriving him of the servioes of the barber and washerman
of the oaste. Certain acts entailing ceremonial impurity, suoh as
accidentally killing a cow or having incestuous intercourse (gotra-badh)
with a woman of the same gotra, admit of being atoned for by giving
a feast to Brahmans and the caste brethren. But the wilful
slaughter of a cow, the repetition of the offence of gotra-badh, and
the oardinal sin of eating with a person of low caste, cannot be
expiated, and in such extreme cases the offender is turned out of
the caste. The Bar-gohri have no standing assembly, and panchayats
are summoned to deal with caste questions as occasion requires.

The servioes of the ojhd are also called in to ascertain what spirit
( bhiit ) or witch ( ddin or bisahi) has caused a
roery * particular illness, and to prescribe the cure.

On such occasions he oomes after sun-down and demands a winnowing
fan, a small earthen lamp, rags for a wiok, a handful of arwa rice,
and some oil. Having twisted a wick into the rude semblanoe
of a hooded snake, the ojha lights his lamp and proceeds, by shaking
the rice in the winnowing fan, to divine the name of the bhiit or
ddin who is to blame. This point having been cleared up, he is
presented with a fowl to be sacrified to his own birwat or ishta deva ,
and he then performs the ceremony of kat bdndh, by which he binds
the patient or his family to the spirit or witoh. This is supposed to
put matters in train towards recovery, and the ojhd departs, receiving
from the patient’s family a promise of presents of goats, etc., in the
event of the treatment proving successful. Rauti&s are in great
terror of witches, and believe, like many people, that they can act
upon their victims through objects belonging to or intimately
associated with them, such as bits of out hair or nails ; but no special
care is taken to preserve or destroy suoh articles.

Dreams are believed to be caused by recently deceased relatives
of the dreamer, who appear to him in sleep and complain of hunger
and want of clothes, etc. Such importunate spirits are easily
appeased by sending for a Brahman and giving him the things
whioh have been demanded in the dream.

Among other ourious superstitions may be noticed the notion
that a woman in the early stages of pregnanoy should not cross
running water. The evil eye is believed in, but its influence is
attributed to inordinate appetite on the part of the person who has

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BJUJTT4

overlooked any one. Its effects may be averted by mixing red
mustard seeds and salt, waving the mixture round the head and then
throwing it into the fire. To ward off the evil eye from the crops,
a blackened earthen pot with rude devioes scrawled on it in white
paint is stuck up in the fields.

Oaths and ordeals are sometimes resorted to for the settlement of
personal disputes and the deoision of questions affecting oaste.
Ganges water, rice that has been offered to Jagannath, a mixture of
rice and oow-dung or oopper and tulsi leaves, are held in the hand
and a solemn statement is made touching the matter in dispute. It
is believed that some sort of misfortune will befall the person who
under these oircumstanoes speaks falsely, but the consequences of lying
do not seem to be clearly defined. In former days a more severe
test was in vogue : a ring was thrown into a deep pan of boiling
ghi, and the person whose conduot was in question was required
to take it out with his fingers.

Boys whose elder brothers have died in infancy are given
opprobrious names, such as Akhaj, Beohan, Beohu (he who is for
sale), Khudi, Chuni, Gandaur, Kinu, Lohar, Cham&r, Dom or
Doman, Moohi, Gh&si, Mahili (names of low oastes). Girls are
called by the feminine forms of these names — Akhji, ChAmin, etc.
Rautias do not follow the custom, oommon among the higher castes,
of giving two names — one for oeremonial purposes and the other
for common use.

Lucky days for ploughing are the 12th of the light half of
K4tik and the 5th of the light half of Agh&n for low rice lands
(don), and the 1st of the dark half of Chait for high lands. The
3rd of the light half of Baisakh is good for sowing ; but if there
is early rain, a Brahman may be got to fix a luoky day before this
date. For transplanting the rice seedlings a luoky day may be
arranged by a Brahman at any time between the 2nd of the dark
half of As&r and the 11th of the light half of Bhado. It is
specially unlucky to plough during the Mrigdah or Nirbisrf period,
called AmbuMohi in Bengal, when the sun is for three days in the
Mrigaaird constellation ; during the Karam festival (10th — 12th of
light half of Bhado) ; and on the day of the Sarhul. Rain during
the Mrigdah brings bad luck ; but rainy weather, while the sun is in
the Rohmi or Swati constellation, betokens good fortune. When rioe
is transplanted, the village pahdn performs the bangari puja to the
god of the village. When a well is sunk a Brahman is consulted as
to the site and the proper time for commencing work, and a pratishthd
or dedicatory sacrifice is performed before the water is used.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of
RautiAs in 1872 and 1881 : —

District.

1871.

1881.

District.

1871.

1881.

Santil Pargani*

Hasaribagn

LofcardagA

16,387

18,683

8ingbhum

Manbhum

Tributary States

M4*

8,264

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BAUTTA.

810

biti.

Rautid, a sab-caste of Koiris
and a title of Ghearos in Chota
Nagpur.

Raut Mehter, a sweeper sub-
caste of Dorns in Behar.

R&wdni, a sub-oaste of Hin-
dus in Behar.

Rawdni or Bernini, Raoni,
Bohdni, a sub-oaste of Kahdrs in
Behar.

Rawanpur, a section of
Kahdrs in Behar.

Raworh, a seotion of Maghaiyd
Kumhdrs in Behar.

Rdya, a title of Brdhmans,
Kdyasths, and several other oastes
in Bengal and Behar; of Khairas
in Chota Nagpur.

Rdyi, a gdtit of the Bharad-
wdja gotra and a mel or hyper-
gamous sub-group of Rdrhi Brah-
mans in Bengal.

Regdlaunchhd, a thar or sept
of Khambus in Darjiling.

Regmi, a thar of the Kausika
gotra of Nepdli Brahmans.

Rekhaur f a sept of Rdjputs
in Behar.

Reldti-Madak, a sub-oaste of
Madhun&pits in Bengal.

Renta, a sept of Fins in Chota
Nagpur.

Meson, a synonym for Teli.

Retha, fruit, a totemistio sept
of Lohirs in Chota Nagpur.

Riing, a sept of Tipperahs in
the Hill Tracts of Chittagong.

Richslp a dugu or seotion of
the Kochh-Mandai in Dacca.
The name indicates the original
habitat of the group, probably
a hill or village in Assam, and
now-a-days has no bearing upon
marriage.

Rigretsa, a sept of Maghs in
the Hill Tracts ot Chittagong.

Rijil, a thar of the Dhinjaya
gotra of Nepdli Brahmans; a
seotion of Kimis ; a thar or sept
of Mangars in Darjiling.

Rikhab, a section of Brah-
mans.

Rikhi, a section of Rajwirs
and Bautiis in Chota Nagpur.

Rikhidsan, a sub-oaste of
Bhuiyas in Hazaribagh; a sept of
Kharwars in Chota Nagpur; a
section of Kddaro and Musahars
in Behar ; a totemistio sept of
Chiks in Chota Nagpur who may
not eat beef or pork.

' Rikhidsan or Pdtrise, a sec-
tion of Mauliks in Western Ben-
gal.

Rikmun, a seotion of Musa-
hars in Behar.

Rimdl, a thar or section of
Nepdli Brahmans.

Rimching, a thar or sept of
Khambus in Darjiling.

R imrimid, a section of Kunnis
in Chota Nagpur and Orissa.

Rishi, a title of the patit or
degraded priests, who minister
to the spiritual wants of the lower
castes ; a section of the Bhar caste
in Manbhum. The term appears
to have been borrowed from the
Brahmanical system in compara-
tively recent times, as the caste
has also a set of the totemistio
sections characteristic of the
Kolarian race.

Rishi, Bishtputra, a synonym
for, and a title of, Muohis in
Bengal.

Risydl, a thar or seotion of
Nepdli Brahmans.

Riti, a title of Bangaja
Kdyasths.

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BUTA.

Roching&chh&, a thar or sept
oi Khambua in Darjiling.

Rohild, a pathi or hyper -
gamous sub-group of Barendra
Brahmans in Bengal.

Rohini, a title of Eihirs in
Behar.

Rohita, a section of Brahmans
and K&yasths in BengaL

Roh-Lutur, ear-pierced, a sub-
sept of the Hansda, Hemrom,
Kisku, and Tudu septs of Sant&ls.

Roht, pdnjaun tree, a sub-sept
of the Mimdi sept of Sant&ls.

Roi, a title of Bamraia
K&yasths.

Roj4 f a title of Kaibarttas in
Bengal.

Rondiar, a section of Mahilis
in Chota Nagpur.

Rong, a sub-tribe of Lepohas
in Darjiling.

Rorah, a sept of R&jputs in
Behar.

Rori, a fruit, a totemistic sept
of Oraons in Chota Nagpur.

Rosr&it, a section of the
Dhapri sub-caste of Dorns in
Behar.

Rote, a sept of the Asuras in
Chota Nagpur.

Rudra, a title of Baidvas and
of Dakshin-R&rhi and tiangaja
K&yasths in Bengal.

Rudrabagphhi, a gdin of the
SAndilya gotra of B&rendra
Brahmans in Bengal.

Rudrabani k, a title of Baniy&s
in Bengal.

JRudrabans , a synonym for
Kumh&r.

JRudrapal , a synonym for Eum-
h&r in BengaL

Rugri, a kind of mushroom,
a totemistic sept of Miindn# in
Chota Nagpur.

Ruhidds, a title laid claim to
by all Chamfirs, as denoting their
desoent from a Bhagat ancestor
of that name; also a title of
Dosadhs in Behar.

Rui, a title of Ehand&its in
Orissa.

Ruichhung, a sub-tribe of
Dejong Lhori or Bhotia of the
south.

Ruid&s, a title of Muohis in
BengaL

Ruj&l, a section of E&mis in
Darjiling.

RujichA, a thar or sept of
Sunuw&rs in Darjiling.

Ruk&i, a thar or section of
Nep&li Brahmans.

Rukhar, a groupof the Aoghar
seot of Saiva ascetics founded in
Guzerat by a Dasnimi mendi-
cant named Brahmagiri. See
Aoghar.

Rukhi, squirrel, a sept of
Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Rukhidr, a section of the
Amashta sub- caste of K&yasths
in Behar.

Rumbd, a section of Uumis
in Darjiling.

Runda, fox, leopard (wild
oat P), a totemistic sept of Mundas,
Oraons and Loh&rs in Chota
Nagpur.

Rupakheti, a thar 01 section
of Nepili Brahmans.

Rutd, a tree, a totemistio sept
of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

o 2

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SABAI ABE.

212

8ADG0P.

SabAiAre, a sept of the AgAni
sub-tribe of Meohes in the Dar-
jiling Terai.

Sabar , a synonym for Savar.

SabarkArA, a sub- caste of
Muohis in Bengal.

SAbarna, a gotra or section
of Baidyas, Brahmans, Gan-
dhabaniks, KAyasths, TAntis, and
Subambaniks in Bengal ; a
Brahmanical section of BAbhans
in Behar.

SAbarnia, a sept of the Chan-
drabansi division of RAjputs in
Behar.

Sabarnika, a section of Utkal
Brahmans.

SabhaiyAr, a pur or section
of SAkadwipi Brahmans in
Behar.

SabhA-Sundar, a title of Dho-
bis in Bengal.

Satgop , Chfody a cultivating caste of Bengal Proper,
who are supposed to have separated themselves
at^cture and internal from the GoAlAs by abandoning pastoral
s * pursuits and taking exclusively to agriculture.

They are divided into two sub-castes — the Paschim KuliyA, who
live to the west of the BhAgirathi, and the Purbba KuliyA, whose
settlements are on the east of that river. The separation between
the two is said to have taken plaoe in the time of Ballal Sen,
when the ancestors of the Paschim Kuliya group refused to accept
the institution of Kulinism, whioh was introduced among them at
a later date and in a somewhat different form. The Purbba
KuliyAs, a much smaller body, adopted the new rules and parted on
that account from the main body of the caste. Originally both sub-
castes were strictly endogamous, but of late years the rule has been
relaxed and marriages have taken place between members of the
two groups. The Purbba Kuliya s, however, recognize a further
division of their own sub-caste into the two endogamous groups
of Ghosh and Sarbesia. The hypergamous divisions of both sub-
castes and the sections of the Paschim KuliyA are shown in the
Appendix. One of the hypergamous groups, the Konr Gop, seems

Sabkota, a thar or sept of
Mangars in Darjiling.

Saboktsa, a sept of Maghs in
the Hill Tracts of Chittagong.

Sabor, a sub-caste of GoAlAs
in Chota Nagpur.

Sabri, a section of KanaujiA
LohArs in Behar.

Sabu, a section of Mahesris in
Behar.

SadA, a section of Sunns in
Behar.

SAdA, a sub-sept of all the
septs of SantAls.

SadAbarti, a section of the
BanodhiA and J aiswAr KalwArs in
Behar.

SAdAGoAIA, a hypergamous
croup of GoAlAs in Eastern

SadAsankar, a thar or sept of
Mangars in Darjiling.

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Google

213

SADGOP.

to have developed in comparatively modern times among the
Sadgops of Murshedabad, and deserves speoial notice for the light
it throws upon the mode in which hypergamous groups are formed.
The Konr Gop are in no sense of purer lineage than their brethren.
They are merely Sadgops who have grown rich and have risen
above the necessity of cultivating with their own hands. They
affect some sort of ill-defined social pre-eminence, and while taking
their wives from among ordinary Satgops will not give their
daughters in marriage outside their own circle. The Purboa Kuliyd
have no sections, and regulate their marriage by the standard rules
defining prohibited degrees.

Infant-marriage is in full force among the Sadgops, and it would
be deemed an indelible disgrace for a girl to
amage * be unprovided with a husband before she

reaches the age of puberty. Men, on the other hand, marry com-
paratively later in life, and the operation of the law of hypergamy,
popularly known as Kulinism, sometimes puts men of the lower
groups to considerable difficulty in finding wives. The marriage
ceremony is of the orthodox type, the binding portion being satpdk ,
the carrying of the bride seven times round the bridegroom.
Although this is technically the essential rite, the marriage is held to
be oomplete at an earlier stage, as soon as the dsirbad , or blessing on
the married pair, has been pronounced. Polygamy is recognized so
far that if a man’s first wife is barren or proves faithless he may
take a second ; but suoh cases are said to be rare, and for all practical
purposes the caste may be regarded as monogamous. Widows are
not allowed to marry a second time. Divorce is not formally
recognized ; but if a woman oommits adultery or otherwise disgraoes
herself, her husband may get rid of her by undergoing the ceremony
of prayaschitta or expiation for impurity and by performing her
sraddh as if she were actually dead. Women so divorced may not
marry again.

The religious and ceremonial observances of the caste exhibit
. no departure from the average Hinduism of

hgl0Um the middle classes in Bengal Almost all

Sadgops are Yaishnavas, Hari and Satya N&r&yan being their
favourite deities. Lakshmi is also regarded with speoial reverenoe
as watching over their welfare, while Sashti and Mangalchandi are
worshipped by the women of the caste. The Brahmans who serve
them as priests are reoeived on equal terms by other members of
the sacred order. The dead are burned, and the srdddh ceremony
is performed according to the orthodox system.

Agriculture is their characteristic pursuit, and they are com-
monly spoken of and addressed as Chasft. In
^Occupation and social Q en t ra i Bengal large numbers of them are

engaged in rearing silk-worms and selling raw
silk. The bulk of the caste are occupancy or non-occupancy raiyats.
Borne hold tenures, and a few, particularly in Midnapur, have risen
to be zamindars of fairly high position. Their social rank is
sufficiently defined by stating mat they belong to the Nabas&kha
group, and that Brahmans will take water and certain kinds of

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Google

8ADG0P.

214

SADItA.

sweetmeats from their hands. Their roles as to diet are the same
as are observed by all orthodox Hindus in Bengal Proper. One
curious oustom may be notioed here. Sadgops will not eat pumpkin
(l&u) aud ddl in the month of Ashdr, and by way of aooounting for
this prohibition tell the absurd story that they are descended from
one Kdlu Ghosh, who, being appointed by one of the gods to look
after his oattle, killed and ate the sacred animals. Oddly enough,
instead of being punished for his sacrilege, the story goes on to
say that his descendants, who thenoeforth applied themselves to
cultivation, were permitted to rank above the children of the other
brother, Murdri Ghosh, who faithfully discharged his trust. Value*
less as the legend is, it deserves notioe as a specimen of the folk-lore
current among the people regarding the origin of particular castes.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of
Sadgops in 1872 and 1881 : —

Dnraor.

1872.

1881.

District.

1872.

Bndvia
Bankura
Birbhum ...
Midnapur ...
Hughli
Howrah
24-Parganto ...
Nadiya

Khulna

Jetaore

Murahedabad

Dinajpur

Bajsnahye ...

Rangpor

Bona

Pabna

Jalpigori ...
Kuoh Behar ...

186,804

17,971

109,446

167,998

} SS.774

38,068

17,606

7,629

99,821

8,316

886

136

276

’*1,086

112,128
46,201
82,764
126,260
’ 61,025
. 19/92
90,670
16.177
5,021
9,316
38,008
8,828
782
60S
942
882
600
133
2,381

Paridpur

Bakarganj ...

Maimsnsinh ...

Tipperah

Chittagong ...

Noakhali ...

Patna

Motighyr

Bhagalpor

Purniah

Mald.h

Santkl ParganSs
Cuttack
Puri
Balasore
Tributary States
Lohsrdagi ...
Sincbhum ...
Manbhum ...

693

186

681

168

11.674

1,686

1,109

218

2,097

1,413

6,416

820

240

167

”***12

1,323

1,648

2/81

838

7,694

126

1,239

2,966

S&dhak, a mul or section of
the Ghosin sub-caste of Godlds
in Behar.

Sddhu, a title of the Deed
sub-caste of Gandhabaniks and
of Tdntis in Bengal.

Sddhubagchhii a gdin of tbe
Sdndilya gotra of Bdrendra
Brahmans in Bengal.

S&dhupaliyd, a sub-oaste of
Kochhs in Dinajpur.

S&dhya, |a hyperganjous group
of the Bdrendra Kdyasths.

S&dhya-Maulikor Bahdtture,
a hypergamous rroup of the
Dakshin-Rdrhi Kdyasths in
Bengal.

Sddh y a-Srotr i ya, a hypergam-
ous group of BArhi Brahmans
in Bengal

Sad-Kdmdr, a sub-caste of
Kdmdrs who are cultivators.

Sad-Loh&r, a sub-caste of
Lohdrs or Hindu blacksmiths in
Lohardagd.

Sad-Munda, a sub-tribe of
Mundas affecting to follow the
Hindu religion.

Sadom, horse, a totemistio sept
of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Sadonga, a sept of Chakmds
in the Hill Traots of Chittagong.

Sadra, a section of Mahesris
in Behar.

Digitized by ^.ooQle

SAFI.

215

SAHMBAHANGh

Sdfly cleaner, a synonym for
Dhobi in Behar, only used by
persons who are not members of
the caste.

SAg, vegetable, a totemistio
sept of Chiks in Chota Nagpur.

SagAhut, a sub-caste of Sunris
in Behar who permit widows to
marry again by the sagdi form,
often opposed to Biakut , who do
not tolerate such a practioe. They
are ordinarily gram-dealers and
shopkeepers.

SAgAin, a gdin or sub-section
of Saptasati Brahmans in Bengal.

SAgarbansi, a synonym for
Sigarpeaha.

SAHA, Sdhu , a title of the DesA
sub-caste of Qandhabaniks in
Bengal; a title of NApits, SonArs,
Telis, and Sunris % The latter
invariably style themselves SAhAs
or Sauloks. Tradition says that
they were created from the sweat
of the trunk (mnda) of the
elephant-mouthed Ganesa to
guard the celestial nectar for his
mother DurgA ; and hence they
were called Sundis (corrupted
into Sunris). BallAl assigned to
them such a low rank on aooount
of their tribal arrogance.

Sahadar, a section of the
BiyAhut and KharidAhA KalwArs
in Behar.

Sagarpeshd, in Orissa a desig-
nation of the illegitimate offspring
of a Brahman woman by a
KAyasth man.

Sagela Bagela, a mul or section
of KesarwAni BaniAs in Behar.

SaghAr, “ vegetable-eater, ! ” a
title of the Bamot sub-caste of
AmAts and of Dhanuks in Behar
who are employed as personal
servants to the higher castes.

SAgi, a section of LohArs in
Behar.

Sagin, the name of female
attendants in shops for the sale
of opium and its compounds, said
to do kept for the puipose of
attracting customers, and relieved
not to be above reproach in
matters of morals.

SAgm A, a totemistio sept of the
Bhumij tribe in Manbhum.

SaguniAi a sub-caste of the
Kraunchdwipi Brahmans in
Behar.

Sagun-ure, a title of the
Eochh caste in Northern Bengal.

SAh, a section of Saraogis in
Behar.

SAhAli a section of the BiyA-
hut and KharidAhA KalwArs in
Behar.

SAhani, a title of MallAhs in
Behar.

Sahar, a section of BhAts.

SAhari, a gdin of the BAtsya
gotra of BArendra Brahmans in
Bengal.

SAhari k, a gdin of the Bha-
radwAja gotra of BArhi Brah-
mans in Bengal.

SaharwAr, a section of KamAr-
| kalla Sonars in Behar.

SahasnangiA, a section of
BAbhans in Behar.

Sahbetri a section of GoAlAs in
Behar*

Sahdaul iA, &kul or section of
BAbhans in Behar.

SAhjAwAn, a section of GoAlAs
in the North-Western Provinces
and Behar.

Sahmbahang, a sept of the
Tambrkhola sub-tribe of limbus *
in Darjiling.

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8AHNI.

216

8AKATI.

Sahni, a title of Gonrhis in
Behar.

Sdho, a title of the Aridr and
Khandiwfir sub-castes of Bais
Baniy6s; of Halwdis, Kahdrs,
Kalwdrs, Kandus, Son&rs. Sunris.
and Telis in Behar.

Sahrwdr, a mul or section of
the Naomulia or Majraut sub-
caste of Godlas in Behar.

Sahsradih, a mul or section of
the Naomulia or Majraut sub-
caste of Gtodlds in Behar.

Sdhu, a title of Ehatris; of
Baniyds, Kalwdrs, and Kdndus
in Behar ; a title of Kewats in
Orissa; of Sondrs in Behar; a
section of the Kulsunri sub-caste
of Sunris in Behar; a title of
Ldheris in Ghota Nagpur.

S&hul, a section of Kharids in
Chota Nagpur.

Sahuliar, a section of the
Sribastab sub-caste of Kdyasths
in Behar.

Saturn, a mul or section of the
Biahut sub-caste of Kalwdrs in
Behar.

Sahurii a mul or section of the
Chhamulid Madhesid sub-oaste of
Halwdis in Behar.

Sdi, a title of Brahmans.

Said&b&d, a section of Pdtnis
in Bengal.

Saigal, a section of the
P&nohidti. sub-caste of Ehatris in
Bengal.

Sai lum, porcupine, a totemistio
sept of Mundas in Ghota Nagpur.

Sdin, a gain or sub-section of
Saptasati Brahmans in Bengal ;
a title of Dakshin-Rdrhi and
Bangaja Kdyasths. I

Sdini, a sub-caste of Sutra-
dhars in Noakhili.

Sainthw&r, a sub-caste of
Kurmis in Behar.

§*tr, a small agricultural
oaste of Western Bengal, believed
to be closely related to Bdgdis.

3a is, a mul or section of the
Maghayd sub-caste of Koiris in
Behar.

Saisarunduar, a sept of Mun-
das in Ghota Nagpur.

Sai Sonarwar, a sept of
Eharwars in Chota Nagpur.

Sditgharid, a sub-caste of
Sutradhars in Noakhdli.

Saitiya, a section of the
Oswdl Baniyds.

Suiva , a worshipper of Siva.

Saival, a thar or section of
Nepdli Brahmans.

Sakaddi, a section of Sondrs
in Behar.

S&kadwipi or Sakaldwipi, a
division of Brahmans in Behar.

Sdkalya, a title of Dhobds in
Bengal.

Sakar-Ghore, a mul of the
Sdndil section of Maithil Brah-
mans in Behar.

Sakarpuriet, a mul or section
of the Naomulid or Majraut sub*
oaste of Gtodlds in Behar.

Sakarw&r, a mul or section of
Bdbhans ; of the Bhojpurid sub-
caste of Halwdis; a sept of the
Chandrabansi division of Bdjputs
in Behar.

Sdkati, a gdin of the Bharad-
wdja gotra of Bdrendra Brah-
mans in Bengal.

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SAXEEBASX.

217

SALHABIX.

SakerbasA, a mul or section
of the KamArkalla sub-caste of
SonArs in Behar.

SAkhA» a title of Brahmans in
Western Bengal.

Sakha I i, a sub-tribe of Man-
gars in Darjiling.

Sakhwaitf a kul or section of
BAbhans in Behar.

Sakin, a section of the Pur-
biyA Madesia sub-caste of Hal-
wAis in Behar.

Sakmait, a section of BAb-
hans in Behar.

SAkori, a mul or section of the
ChhamuliA MadhesiA sub-caste of
HalwAis in Behar.

SakrAit f a section of BAns-
phor Doms in Western Behar.

SakraiwAr-Harari, a mul of
the KAsyapa section of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar.

SakraiwAr-Tatail, a mul of
the KAsyap section of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar.

SakraiwAr-Chh&mu, a mul of
the KAsyap section of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar.

Sakraul, a. mul or section of the
NaomuliA or GoriA sub-caste of
GoAlAs in Behar.

Sakrif a mul or section of the
KanaujiA sub-caste of SonArs and
of GhAsis in Behar.

Sakrol, a mul or section of the
ChhamuliA MadhesiA sub-caste of
Halw&is in Behar.

Saksena, a sub-caste of
Kayasths in Behar.

Sdkta, a worshipper of the
female principle in nature, of the
female forms of the Hindu deities,
and especially of Devi, the sakti

or female energy of Siva. SAktas
are divided into two classes :
Dakshin A chAris, or DakshinamAr-
gis, “ followers of the right-hand
path,” and YAmAohAris or YAma-
mArgis, “ followers of the left-hand
path.” The former base their
religion on the PurAnas and do
not practise mystical or secret
rites ; the latter derive their
ritual from the magical treatises
known as Tantras, and are addiot-
ed to practices of a grossly lioen-
tious character. The Tantras are
said to be founded on the Kaula
Upanishad, and the left-handed
SAktas are therefore called Kauli-
kas.

Sakti, a title of Dakshin-
RArhi EAyasths in BengaL

Saktri, a gotra or section of
Brahmans and Baidyas in Bengal.

SakuntalA, a sub-caste of
Brahmans in Behar.

SAI, fish, a totemistic section of
KhandAits; a sept of Mundas
and Oraons ; a title of Dakshin-
KArhi KAyasths.

SAI or Saula, a section of
KorAs, signifying a fish.

Sdldkhd, a synonym for Sherpa
Bhotia of Nepal.

SAIAk-khA, a merchant carry-
ing on trade, a sub-sept of the
Nah-pA sept of Sherpa Bhotias.

SAIangiA, a section of GoAlAs
in the North-Western Provinces
and Behar.

SalankAyana, an exogamous
section of Baidyas in Bengal.

SAIbanwAr, %dl jungle, a
totemistic section of feurmis in
Chota Nagpur and Orissa.

SalhariA, a kul or seotion of
BAbhans in Behar.

Digitized by

Google

SALEjLB.

218

8AMP.

Salkar, a kind of potato, a
totemistio sept oi Mundas in
Chota Nagpur.

SAIkhini, a mul or . section of
the NaomuliA or Majraut sub-
caste of GoAlas in Behar.

SAImAchh, fish, a totemistio
sept of Savars in Orissa ; a section
of MAI « in Midnapur and Man-
bhum.

SAIodiA, a section of GoAlAs
in the North-Western Provinoes
and Behar.

8Alrishi or S&lm&ch (the »dl
fish), a section of BAgdis in
Bengal and of OhAsAs in Orissa , ;
a to temis tio sept of the Bhumij
tribe in Manbhum, the members
of which will not touch or eat the
tdl fish; a seotion of LobArs in
the SantAl FarganAs.

SAlu, a root in pond, a totem-
istio sept of Mundas in Chota
Nagpur.

SAIubi, a synonym for PAti-
kAr, q.c.

SAm, SyAm, a title of
Dakshin-RArhi and Bangaja
KAyasths.

SAmA, a section of KorAs in
Chota Nagpur.

Samaddar, a title of ChAsA-
dhobAs in Bengal and a hyper-
gamous group of Kaibarttas in
Bakarganj.

SAmagAu, a singer of the Sima
Veda, a title of Brahmans.

SamaiAr, a section of
KAyasths in Behar.

Samal, a title of Khandaits
in Orissa.

Samal, a title of ChAsAs in
Orissa.

8amal or Samar, deer, a
totemistio sept of Mundas.

SAmanta, a ohief, a group of
the Srotriya sub-caste of Utkal
Brahmans; a title of Aguris,
Brahmans, Khandaits, RAjputs,
Sadgops, Telia, and some other
oastes.

SAmantasAr, a tamaj or local
group of the Saunaka gotra of
PAschAtya Baidik Brahmans in
Bengal.

SAmAnya-Maulik, a hyper-
gamoua group of the Uttar- BArbi
sub-oaste of KAyasths.

SamAri, a sub-caste of Mal-
lAhs in Behar.

Samarid, a synonym for MAle.

Samastipur, a mul or section
of the NaomuliA or Majraut sub-
caste of GoAlas in Behar.

Samat, pestle, a totemistio
sept of Korwaa in Chota Nag-
pur.

SamdiA, a section of KhariAs
in Chota Nagpur.

Samdoar, a sept of Mundas
in Chota Nagpur.

Samduar, a sept of AgariAs
in Chota Nagpur.

SAmigrihi, a seotion of Utkal
or Orissa Brahmans.

SAmil ThAkur, a seotion of
KanaujiA LobArs in Behar.

Samjhar, a sept of Chiks in
Chota Nagpur.

SAmp, snake, a totemistio sept
of Korwaa; a seotion of Turis;
a section of GoAlAs in the
North-Western Provinces and
Behar.

Digitized by t^oosle

SAMPEBIYA.

219

BXNDILYA.

SAmperiyA, SAmp-wAIA, a
sub-caste of Bediyas who oatoh
and charm snakes.

SamswAr, a sub-caste of
Kurmifl in Behar.

Samudra, a gain of the
SAbama gotra of BArendra Brah-
mans in Bengal.

Samudw&r, a sept of Khar-
wars in Chota Nagpur.

Samundar-KhorA, a section
of SonArs in Behar.

Samwah, a sept of Limbus in
Darjiling.

San, heron, a totemistio sept
of LohArs in Chota Nagpur.

SAn, a title of ChAsAdhobAs in
Bengal.

SAnA, a title of Dakshin-
RArhi KAyasths in Bengal.

SanAdhya, a sub-caste of
Gaura Brahmans.

SAnAgAnthA, a sub-caste of
MAls in Bankura.

Sand i, plough, a totemistio
sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

SandiguriA, black monkey, a
totemistio sept of Mundas in
Chota Nagpur.

Sand i I, full moon, a totemistio
sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

SAndil, a gotra or section of
Babhans in Behar, borrowed
from the Brahmanioal system
and superadded to the original
exogamous groups (kuk) charac-
teristic of the caste ; a seotion of
the KumhAr caste in Western
Bengal, apparently borrowed
from the Branmanical system and
added to the totemistio sections
characteristic of the caste ; a seo-
tion of Utkal Brahmans ; a
section of Chains.

SAndil or Sanrishi, a bull,
a totemistio seotion of the Pari-
pAl sub-caste of Sunris in Man-
bhum, the members of whioh do
not castrate their own oattle, but
purohase bullocks and sell their
own bulls.

SanahiA, a title of Hindu
JolAhas in Behar.

8Anchi, a sub-caste of Dorns
in Bengal.

Sanda, a pangat or section of
DosAdhs in Behar.

SandaliA, a seotion of BAb-
hans in Behar.

SAndh, bullock, a totemistio
sept of LohArs; a section of
GorAits ; a totemistio sept of
ChamArs and Dorns in Chota
Nagpur.

SandhawAr, a section of the
Amashta sub-caste of KAyasths
in Behar.

Sandhody a synonym for NiyA-
riya, q.v.

Sandilai, a sept of Pators in
Chota Nagpur.

SAndilya, a gotra or section
of the Aguri, Baidya, Brahman,
KAmAr, and Subamabanik castes
in Bengal ; a section of the SArAk
caste in Manbhum ; of KumhArs,
TAntis, Telis and KAyasths in
Bengal; an eponymous sept o!
RAjputs and ttavars; a section
of GoAlAs, Kaibarttas, MadhunA-
pits, MAlis, MayarAs, Muohis,
NApits, and Sunris in Bengal;
an eponymous section of Barhis,
Baruis, RautiAs, ChAsAdhobAs,
Gandhabaniks; a sept of Bhu-
mijs; a section of SAnkhAris,
BhAts ; of Suklis in Midnapur;
of the Paschim KuliyA S adg ops ;
of Sutradhars and TAmbulia in
Bengal

Digitized by {jOOQie

8ANDIPUBTL

220

SANKATWAR.

Sandipurti, cook, a totemistio
sept of Mundas in Chota Nag-
pur.

Sandi Sarin, fowl, a totem-
istio sept of Mundas in Chota
Nagpur.

Sandwipd, a sub-oaste of
Kumhdrs in Noakhdli.

Sanga, a title of Bangaja
Kdyasths.

Sangd, or Sangoar , sweet
potato, a totemistio sept of
Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Sdngd, a seotion of the Mahili-
Munda sub-oaste of Mahilis in
Chota Nagpur.

Sangalwdr, a sept of Lohdrs
in Chota Nagpur.

Sdngbd, a seotion of Murmis
in Darjiling.

S&ngbah, a sept of Limbus in
Darjiling.

Sang-behbo, a rut or sept of
Dejong Lhoris, the members of
which are the descendants of
emigrants from Bhotan and Ne-
pal.

Sang Chiria, a kind of bird,
a totemistio sept of Mundas in
Chota Nagpur.

Sangda, a sub-sept of the
Murmu sept of Santdls.

Sdngdan, a seotion of Mur-
mis in Darjiling.

Sangi, a synonym for Mdle.

Sdngir, a sept of the Surya-
bansi sub-tribe of Ed j puts in
Behar.

Sangiri Thdkur, a seotion of
Kanaujid Lohdrs in Behar,

Sangma, a buffalo, apparently
a totemistio sept of the Chhothar
sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.
The buffalo is taboo to this thar :

the legend is the same as that of
the Khema thar .

Sangmi, a sept of Lepohas in
Darjiling.

Sdngpdng, a thar or sept of
Khambus in Darjiling.

Sangskdr, a performer of cere-
monies, a title of Brahmans.

Sangtaras, stone-cutters of vari-
ous castes.

Sangtardsh, a sub-oaste of
Gonrhis in Behar. They say
they are not Gonrhis, and dis-
tinguish themselves as Gonrh.
They work in stone.

Sangwe, a title of Ardiya
Telis in Behar.

Sanha, a seotion of the Biyd-
hut and Kharidahd Kalwdrs in
Behar.

Sanhakid, a section of Bhdts.

Sanicherd, a sub-caste of the
Kraunohdwipi Brahmans in
Behar.

Sanichrd, a mul or section of
Kalwdrs in Behar.

Sanj “kmah, a sept of Lim-
bus in Darjiling.

Sankar, a title of Sannyasis
and Baird gis.

SanJcarjdti, a generic term for
the castes supposed to have been
formed by marriages or illioit
connexions between members of
the four primary castes.

Sankarpur, a mul or section
of the Naomulid or Majraut sub-
caste of Godlds in Behar.

8ankarshan, a seotion of the
Pdschdlya Baidik Brahmans in
Bengal.

Sankarwdr, a sept of Edjputs
in Behar.

Sankatwdr, a title of Dhd-
nuks in Behar.

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SANKH.

221

SANKHARI.

S&nkh, oonoh shell, a sub- Sankkabanik , a synonym for

sept of the Saren sept of Santals. S&nkh&ri in Bengal.

Sankha, a section of Karans Sarikhak&r , a synonym for

in Orissa. S&nkh&ri in Bengal.

Sankha-Asram, a sub-caste of Sankhalai, a sub-caste of
Gandhabaniks in Bengal. K&m&rs in the Santol Pargan&s.

Sankhak&r . Sankhabanik , the shell-cutting caste of
___ * • • Bengal, some of whom have taken of late years

ono ongin. ^ W(jr y n g ^ gold and silver. Tradition

ascribes the origin of the caste, as of the goldsmiths, jewellers and
Kins&ris, to one Dhanapati Saudagar of Karnita, from whose third
son, Srikanta, the S&nkh&ri believe themselves to be descended.
They claim to be Yaisyas, and say that up to the time of Adisur.
they wore the Brahmanical thread, but were degraded by him at the
same time as the Subamabaniks, because the latter had out to pieces
a golden cow which the king had given to oertain Brahmans at the
celebration of a speoial sacrifice. S&nkharis have the Brahmanical
gotras and observe the same table of prohibited degrees as the higher
castes. In Dacca they are divided into two sub-castes — Bara-
TA Bh£giya or Bikrampur S&nkhdri and

internal stru ure. Chhota-Bh&giya or Sunarg&on S&nkh&ri.

The latter are a comparatively small group, who work at polishing
shells, whioh they purohase ready cut— a departure from traditional
usage, which may account for their separation from the main body
of toe caste. In other districts, owing possibly to the smallness of
the caste, no similar divisions seem to have been formed.

The S&nkhari, says Dr. Wise, have the character of being very
, . . . . penurious and unusually industrious, young and
old working to a late hour at night. Boys are
taught the trade at a very early age, otherwise their limbs would not
brook the awkward posture and oonfined space in which work is
carried on. When sawing, the shell is held by the toes, the
semi-circular saw, kept perpendicular, being moved sideways. The
caste are notoriously filthy in their domestio arrangements. A
narrow passage, hardly two feet wide, leads through toe house to an
open courtyard, where the sewage of the household collects and is
never removed. Epidemic diseases are very prevalent among them,
and owing doubtless to their unhealthy mode of life the men as a
rule are pale and flabby and very subject to elephantiasis, hernia,
and hydrooele.

Dr. Wise describes the women as “ remarkable for their beauty,
confinement within dark rooms giving them a light wheaten
complexion. They are, however, squat, beooming corpulent in adult
life, and their features, though still handsome, inanimate. They are
very shy, but toe fact that m former days their good looks exposed
them to the insults and outrages of licentious Muhammadan officials

is a sufficient exouse for their timidity. Even now-a-days toe
recollection of past indignities rouses the S&nkhari to fury, and the
greatest abuse that can be cast at him is to oall him a son of Abdul

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SANKHAEI.

232

Bsssask q or of B4ja B4m D is. The former was a zamindir of Daooa ;
tiie latter the seooDd son of Baja Bij Ballabh, Diwin of Bengal. It
is stated^ that they frequently Droke into houses and carried off the
Sinkh&ri girls, oeing shielded by their rank and influence from
any punishment.”

Sinkhiris many their daughters as infants by the ceremony
in use among the highest oastes. It is the
Mamage. fashion for the bridegroom to ride in the
marriage prooession, while the bride, dressed in red, is carried in
a palanquin. Polygamy is permitted subject to the same restrictions
as are in foroe among the Brahmans and Kiyasths. Widows are not
allowed to marry wain, nor is divoroe recognized.

Nearly all Sinkhiris belong to the Vaishnava sect, and
p,. . comparatively few Siktas are found among

ugi0IL them. Their principal festival is held on the

last day of Bh&dra (August-September), when they ^ive up work
for five days and worship Agastya Bishi, who. according to them,
rid the world of a formidable demon called Sankha Asura by cutting
him up with the semi-circular saw used by shell-cutters. Others say
that they revere Agastya, because he was the guru or spiritual guide
of their anoestor Dnandpati Saudigar. Bioe, sweetmeats, and fruit
are offered to him, and are afterwards partaken of by the Brahmans,
who serve the caste as priests. These Brahmans act also as priests
for the Kayasths, and are reoeived on equal terms by other members
of the sacred order. They also observe the Jhulatijdtrd and
Janmdshtami festivals in honour of Krishna, kept by all Bengali
Yaishnavas. Sinkhiris bum their dead, mourn for thirty days, and
perform srdddh in the orthodox fashion.

In point of social standing the Sinkhiris rank with the
Navasakha, and Brahmans will take water and
m certain kinds of sweetmeats from their hands.
Their own rules regarding diet are the same as those of the highest
ranks of Hindus. Many of them indeed are vegetarians, and abstain
even from fish. Taken as a whole, the oaste have been singularly
constant to their hereditary occupation — a fact which is due partly to
the smallness of their number, and partly to the steady demand for
the articles which they produce. In Bengal Proper every married
woman of the respectable castes wears shell-bracelets, which are as
much a badge of wedded life as the streak of red lead down the
parting of the hair. Of late years, however, a certain proportion of
the Sinkhiris have become traders, writers, timber and doth
merchants, and claim on that account to be superior in social rank
to those who manufacture shell bracelets.

Dr. Wise collected from various sources the following interesting
„ particulars regarding the traditional occupation

0ccu P abon - Sf the Sinkhiris:-

The shells used for manufacturing bracelets are imported from
the Gulf of Manaar. Natives distinguish many varieties, differing
in oolour and size, but the ordinary oonoh shell is the Mazza or
Turbinella napa. The trade in these shells has flourished from the
earliest historical times. The “ ohank ” is mentioned by Abil Zaid

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223

8ANKHATII.

in the tenth oentury of our era* Tavernier includes shell bracelets
among the exports of Daooa in 1666, and adds that in Patna and
Bengal there were over two thousand persons employed in manu-
facturing them. 1

Towards the end of the seventeenth oentury the shell trade
became a monopoly in the hands of the Dutch. A French missionary
in 1700 writes® : — “ It is scarcely credible how jealous the Dutoh
are of this oommeroe. It was death to a native to sell them to
any one but to the factory servants at Oeylon. The shells were
bought for a trifle, but when despatched in their own vessels to
Bengal, the Dutoh aoquired great profit."

The ©hank fishery* became a royalty of the English Government,
yielding an annual revenue of 4,000/., but it is now open to all the
world. In former days six hundred divers were employed, and in a
single season four and a half millions of shells were frequently taken,
of the gross annual value of 8,000/. The shells are imported by
English merchants into Calcutta, purchased by rioh Sinkharis, and
retailed to the cutters.

On the arrival of the shells the remains of the mollusc (pitta)
are extracted and sold to native physioians as a medicine for spleen
enlargement. The base (jgherd), the lip, and point of the shell are
then knooked off with a hammer, the chips being used as gravel
for garden walks or sold to agents from Murshedabad, where Deads
are made of the larger pieces, and a paint, Mattiya Sindtir, of
the smaller. From two to eight bracelets are made from one shell.
The sawdust is used to prevent the pitting of small-pox, and as an
ingredient of a valuable white paint.

In the ordinary shell the whorls turn from right to left, but
when one is found with the whorls reversed, “ Dakshin4-varta,"
its price is extravagant, as it is believed to ensure wealth and
prosperity. One belonging to* a Dacca zamindar is so highly
prized that he refused an offer of 300 rupees.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of
S&nkh&ris in 1872 and 1881 : —

District.

1872.

1881.

District.

1872.

1881.

Bard wan

Sankara

Birbhum

Midnapur

Huahli

Howrah

24-Fsrgan4s

Nsdiya

Jpmlna

Jessore

Murshedabad

pA z z :::

Bengpur

Bogra

Fiibna
Kuoh Behar

1,145

479

674

1,513

} 968

1,226

175

1,430

422

179

168

1,001
087
169
1,438
< 633

l 823

300
73
218
556
871
31
87
3
67
93
1

Dacca

Faridpur

B»*arg»nJ

Maimansinh

Tipperah

Chittagong

Noakhali

M&ldah ... ... ...

Hasaribagh

Lohardagfc _

Singbhum

Manbbum

Cuttack

Puri

Balasore

Tributary States

853

1,157

192

171

262

153

410

859

1,135

270

408

1.217

335

708

460

240

1,001

280

813

105

1 Tavernier, part ii, book ii. 183-84.

* Lettree Bdiiantee, ii, 278.

1 Accounts of this shell or “ sea-horn” fishery are given by Jan Nienhof in A. and
J. Churchill’s Voyages and Travels* vol ii, 298, and, of a later date, in Lettre «
z, 121 (ed. 1781).

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8ANKHI.

224

SANTAL.

Sankhi, a sub-tribe of Rajputs
in Chota Nagpur.

Sankhw&r, a section of the
Kurmi caste in Chota Nagpur the
members of which may not wear
sankud or shell ornaments. An-
other peculiarity of the section
is that its members wear a pagri
in the marriage ceremony, and
are prohibited from wearing the
ornamental head-dress (mukut)
made of sold pith, generally used
on such occasions.

S&nkif a sub-caste of Muchis
in Bengal.

S&nko&t a totemistic section of
the Bajw&r caste in Manbhum.

Sinkritif a section of Brah-
mans.

Sankura, king crow, a totem-
istio sept of Mundas in Chota
Nagpur.

Sankw&, a section of Rajw&rs
in Western Bengal.

Sanmaulik, a hypergamous
group of the Uttar- Rarhi K4y-
asths in Bengal.

S&nny&l, a gdin of the BAtsya
gotra of B&rendra Brahmans in
BengaL

Sanny&si Atit, a class of Atit
in Behar who adopt a purely
ascetio and celibate life, and
transmit their property to their
pupils ( chelds ) by a sort of spiri-
tual succession.

Sannydsi or K4nph&t, a reli-
gious group of Jugis.

S&no or Kab4tkoni&, a sub-
caste of Sudh&s in Orissa.

S&npu, a totemistio section of
the Kor& caste in Manbhum, the
members of which will not touoh
or kill a bull.

Sanpuri, a sept of Mundas in
Chota Nagpur.

S4nr&ri (Jaideb), a section of
Majhraut Go£l£s in Behar.

Sans&it, a section of the
Dhapra sub-caste of Dorns in
Behar.

8ansdri , an epithet applied by
Christian Kolhs in Chota Nagpur
to their heathen neighbours.

Sansw&r, a sub-caste of Kur-
mis in Behar.

Sonthal , Saontar , a large Dravidian tribe, olassed on
. linguistio grounds as Kolarian, whioh is found

ngman tra iom. j n Bengal, Northern Orissa, Bh&-

galpur and the Sant&l Parganis. According to Mr. Skrefsrud the
name Santdl is a corruption of ti&ont&r, and was adopted by the
tribe after their sojourn for several generations in the country
about S&ont in Midnapur. Before they went to S&ont they are
said to have been called Kharw&r, the root of whioh, khar , is a
variant of hor> ‘man,’ the name whioh all Sant&ls use among
themselves. As regards the derivation of the name of the tribe
from Saont, an obscure village, somewhat off the main line of
their recent migrations, it may be observed that Colonel Dalton
suggested a doubt whether the name of the place may not have been
taken from the tribe, and this view seems to derive some support
from his disoovery of a small tribe of Saonts in Sarguja and
Keunjhar. The point, however, is not one of great importance.
At the present day when a Sant&l is asked what caste he belongs
to, he will almost invariably reply ‘ M&njhi’ (literally ‘village

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225

SANTAL.

headman/ one of the oommonest titles of the tribe), adding ' Sant&l
Mdnjhi ’ if further explanation is demanded of him.

In point of physioal characteristics the SantAls may be regarded
as typical examples of the pure Dra vidian stock. Their com-
plexion varies from very dark brown to a peculiar, almost charcoal-
like, black ; the proportions of the nose approaoh those of the Negro,
the bridge being more depressed in relation to the orbits than is the
case with Hindus ; the mouth is large, the lips thiok and projecting ;
the hair coarse, blaok, and occasionally ourly ; the zygomatio arches
prominent, while the proportions of the skull, approaching the
dolichocephalic type, conclusively refute the hypothesis of their
Mongolian descent.

Sant£l tradition traoes back the origin of the tribe to a wild

g ose (hdsdak) which laid two eggs. From these sprang Pilohu
aram and Pilohu Burhi, the parents of the raoe, who begat the
first seven sub-tribes. Their earliest abode was Hihiri or Ahiri
Pipiri, a name which Mr. 8krefsrud derives from hir origin, and
whioh others identify with pargand Ahuri in Hazaribagh. Thence
they went westward to Khoj-Kaman, where all of them were destroyed
for their wickedness by a deluge of fire-rain, except a single pair
who were saved in a cleft of the mountain Hara. From Hara
they went to Sasangbera, a plain on the banks of a great
river, and after that to Jarpi, where is the great mountain
Marang Buro, through which they could find no pass. Here they
offered sacrifices to the mountain god, and prayed him to let them
through. After ar while they found a pass leading into a oountry
called Ahiri, where they dwelled for a time, passing on to Kendi,
Ghai, and finally Champa. In Champa they sojourned many
generations, and the present institutions of the tribe were formed.
At last the Hindus drove them out of Champa, and they established
themselves in Saont, and ruled there for two hundred years. Again
pressed by the Hindus, they wandered on under a Raja called
Hambir Singh to the eastern part of the Manbhum district near
Paohet. Here after a while their Rajas adopted the Hindu
religion and set up as Rajputs, so that at the present day they
intermarry with the family of the Raja of Sarauja. But the people
would not change their religion, so they left their chief to rule over
Hindus, and wandered on to the Santkl Pargan&s, where they are
settled now.

Neither as a record of actual wanderings nor as an example
of the workings of the myth making faculty does this story of
the wandering of the Sant&ls appear to deserve serious consideration.
A people whose only means of recording facts consists of tying
knots in strings, and who have no bards to hand down a national
epic by oral tradition, can hardly be expected to preserve the
memory of their past long enough or aoourately enough for their
accounts of it to possess any historical value. An attempt has
indeed been made by Mr. Skrefsrud to prove from these legends
that the Sant&ls must have entered into India from the north-west,
just as Colonel Dalton uses the same data in support of his
opinion that the tribe oame originally from Assam. The one

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226

hypothesis is as tenable or as untenable as the other, and all that can
be said is that there is not a fraction of substantial evidence in
support of either. If, however, the legends of the Sant&ls are
regarded as an account of reoent migrations, their general purport will
be found to be fairly in acoord with actual facts. Without pressing
the conjecture mentioned above, that Ahiri Pipri may be no other
than parg&na Aburi in the north-west of Hazaribagh district, it is
dear that a large and important Santal colony was once settled in
pargan&s Chai and Champi. in the same district. A tradition is
noticed by Colonel Dalton of cm old fort in Chai oooupied by one
Jaura, a Sant&l Kaja, who destroyed himself and his family on hearing
of the approaoh of a Muhamadan army under Sayyid Ibrahim An
alias Malik Bay&, a general of Muhammad Tughlak’s, who died in
1353. This tradition, so far as it refers to the existeooe of a Sant&l
fort in Chai Champd, is to some extent corroborated by the following
passage from the legends of the Southern Sant&ls collected by the
Revd. J. Phillips and published in Appendix G to Annals of Rural
Bengal , ed. 1868 : — “ Dwelling there (in Chai Champa) they greatly
multiplied. There were two gates, the Ahin gate and the B&hini
gate, to the fort of Chai ChampA” If, moreover, the date of the
taking of this fort by Ibr&him Ali were assumed to be about 1340
A.D., the subsequent migrations of which the tribal legends speak
would fill up the time intervening between the departure of the
6ant41s from Chai Ohampi and their settlement in the present
Santel ParganAs. Speaking generally, these recent migrations have
been to the east, which is the direction they might primd facie have
been expeoted to follow. The earliest settlements which Santdl
tradition speaks of, those in Ahiri Pipri and Chai Champ&, lie on the
north-western frontier of the table land of Hazaribagh and in the
direot line of advance of the numerous Hindu immigrants from
Behar. That the influx of Hindus has in fact driven the Sant&ls

eastward is beyond doubt, and the line which they are known to
have followed in their retreat corresponds on the whole with that
attributed to them in their tribal legends.

The internal structure of the Sant&l tribe is singularly oom-
T . . , ^ plete and elaborate. There are twelve exoga-

m ure ’ mous septs, (1) H&sdak, (2) Murmu, (3) Kisku,

(4) Hembrom, (5) Mamdi, (6) Saren, (7) Tudu, (8) Baske, (9) Besra,
(10) P&uria, (11) Chore, (12) Bedea. The first seven are believed
to be descended from the seven sons of Pilchu Haram and Pilchu

Burhi or Ayo. The five others were added afterwards. All are
exogamous. In order that members of the various septs may recog-
nize each other when they meet, each sept, exoept P&uria, Chore
and Bedea, has certain pass-words peculiar to itself, whioh are
supposed to be the names of the original homes of the septs in
Champ& or in one of the earlier settlements of the tribe. The
pass-words are as follows: — (1) H&sdak— 1 Tatijh&ri, Gangijauui,
K&r& Guja, Sohodoro; (2) Murmu — ChampAgarh, Bagsumbha,
Naran Manjhi; (3) Kisku — Kundagarh ; (4) Hembrom— Kunda,
Khairigarb, Jalaghatia; (5) Mamdi — Badoligarh, Jelen Sinjo,
Dhano M6njhi; (6) Saren — Anbali, Barba, Pero Pargana; (7)

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8ANTXL.

Tudu— Simgarh, Sukrihutup, Baru Mdn jhi ; (8) Baske— Banga,
Chunuk-jhandu ; (9) Bears — Dhokrapalania, Gulu, Phagu M&njhi.
These pass- words or shibboleths seem to serve among the Sant&ls the
purpose for whioh Australian and North American savages tattoo the
totem on the body. They preserve the memory of the tie of blood
whioh connects the members of the sept, and thus furnish an addi-
tional security against unconscious incest. They further go to
show that the sept in its earliest form must have been a group of
purely local character analogous to the communal septs which have
been mentioned in the artiole on Kandh. If due allowance is made
for the causes whioh must tend in course of time to scatter the members
of any particular sept over a number of different villages, it will be
seen to be a remarkable oircumstance not that so few local septs are
now to be found, but that any traces of such an organization have
survived to so late a period.

Concerning the origin of the five additional septs the following
stories are told. The eighth tribe, Baske, at first belonged to the
seven, but by reason of their offering their breakfast {baske) to the
gods while the Sant&ls were still in Champd, they were formed into
a separate sept under the name of Baske. The Besras (No. 9) were
separated on aocount of the immoral behaviour of their eponym, who
was called Besra, the licentious one. The tenth sept, P&uria, are
called after the pigeon, and the eleventh, Chore, after the lizard ; and
the story is that on the ocoasion of a famous tribal hunting party
the members of these two septs failed to kill anything but pigeons
and lizards, so they were called after the names of these animals.
The twelfth sept, the Bedea, was left behind and lost when the
Sant&ls went up out of ChampA They had no father, so the story
goes — at least the mother of their first ancestor could not say who
his father was, and for this reason they were deemed of lower rank
than the other septs. This sept is believed to have arisen during
the time of Mando Singh in OhampA when the Sant&ls had begun
to come in contact with the Hindus. Some Sant&ls say the fathe r
was a B&jput and the mother a girl of the Kisku sept. There
would be nothing antecedently improbable in the oonjeoture that
the well-known gypsy tribe of Bedea may owe its origin to the
liaison of a Rajput with a Sant&l girl; but the mere resemblanoe
of the names is a slender foundation for any suoh hypothesis.
Sant&ls are very particular about the honour of their women, so far
at least as outsiders are ooncemed, and it is quite in keeping with
their ideas that a sept formed by a liaison with a Hindu should
have been looked down upon, and eventually banished from the
community. Any way it seems to be clear that the legend need
not be taken to indioate the prevalence of the custom of female
kinship in the tribe.

No Sant&l may marry within his sept (p&ris), nor within any
of the sub-septs ( khunt ) (shown in Appendix I)
Mamage. into which the sept is divided. He may marry

into any other sept, including the sept to whioh his mother belonged.
A Sant&l proverb says : — No one heeds a cow track or regards his
mother’s sept.

P 2

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8 ANTAL.

228

Although no regard is paid in marriage to the mother's sept,
the 8ant£ls have precisely the same rule as the Kandhs oonoerning
the sub-sept or Hunt. A man may not marry into the sub-sept or
khunt to whioh his mother belonged, though it is doubtful whether
the Sant&ls observe this rule for as many generations in the
descending line as is customary among the Kandhs. Many of the
sub- septs nave curious traditional usages, some of whioh may be
mentioned here. At the time of the harvest festival in January
the members of the 8idup-$aren sub-sept set up a sheaf of rice
on end in the doorway of their cattle sheds. This sheaf they may
not touoh themselves, but some one belonging to another sub-sept
must be got to take it away. Men of the S&dA-Saren sub-sept do
not use vermilion in their marriage ritual ; they may not wear
clothes with a red border on such occasions, nor may they be present
at any ceremony in whioh the priest offers his own blood to propitiate
the gods. The Jugi-Ssren, on the other hand, smear their foreheads
with sindur at the harvest festival, and go round asking alms of
rioe. With the rice they get they make little cakes whioh they
offer to the gods. The MAnjhi-Khil-Saren, so called because their
ancestor was a mdnjhi or village headman, are forbidden, like
the 8Ad6-Saren, to attend when the priest offers up his own blood.
The N Aiki-Khil-Saren, who claim descent from a niiki or village
priest may not enter a house the inmates of which are ceremonially
unolean. They have a jdhirthdn or sacred grove of their own,
distinct from the common jdhirthdn of the village, and they dis-
pense with the services of the priest who serves the rest of the
village. The Ok-Saren sacrifice a goat or a pig inside their houses,
and during the ceremony they shut the doors tight and allow no
smoke to escape. The word ok means to suffooate or stifle with smoke.
The Mundu or Badar-Saren offer their saorifioes in the jungle, and
allow only males to eat the flesh of the animals that have been slain.
The MAl-Saren may not utter the word mal when engaged in a
religious ceremony or when sitting on a panch&yat to determine
any tribal questions. The Jihu-Saren may not kill or eat the jihu
or babbler bird, nor may they wear a particular sort of neoklaoe
known as jihu maid from the resemblanoe whioh it bears to the
babbler’s eggs. The jihu is said to have guided the ancestor of the
sept to water when he was dying of thirst in the forest. The
Sankh-Saren may not wear shell necklaces or ornaments. The Barchir
Saren plant a spear in the ground when they are engaged in religious
or oeremonial observances. The Bitol-Saren are so oalled because their
founder was excommunicated on account of incest.

Girls are married as adults mostly to men of their own choice.
Sexual intercourse before marriage is tacitly recognized, it being
understood that if the girl becomes pregnant the young man is bound
to marry her. Should he attempt to evade this obligation, he would be
severely beaten by the Jag-m&njhi, and in addition to this his father
would be required to pay a heavy fine. It is ourious to hear that
in the Santdl Pargan&s, shortly after the rebellion of 1855, it became
the fashion among the more wealthy SantAls to imitate the usages of
high-caste Hindus and marry their daughters between the ages of

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SANTJCL.

eight and twelve. This fashion has, however, sinoe been abandoned,
and it is now very unusual for a girl to be married before she attains
puberty. Polygamy is not favoured by the custom of the tribe.
A man may take a second wife if his first wife is barren, or if his
elder brother dies he may marry the widow. But in either case
the consent of his original wife must be obtained to the arrange-
ment. Instances no doubt occur in whioh this rule is evaded, but
they are looked upon with disfavour.

There seem to be indications that fraternal polyandry may
at some time have existed among the 8ant&ls. Even now, says
Mr. Skrefsrud, a man’s younger brother may share his wife with
impunity ; only they must not go about it very openly. Similarly
a wife will admit her younger sister to intimate relations with her
husband, and if pregnancy occurs scandal is avoided by his marry-
ing the girl as a second wife. It will of course be noticed that this
form of polyandry need not be regarded as a survival of female
kinship.

The following forms of marriage are reoognized by the Sant&ls
and distinguished by separate names : — (1) Regular marriage (bapla or
hiring behu , literally bride-purohase) ; (2) Ohardi jawde ; (3) Itut ; (4)
Nir-bolok ; (5) Sanga ; (6) Kiting jawae or husband-purchase. The
negotiations antecedent to a regular marriage are opened by the father
of the young man, who usually employs a professional matoh-maker
to look for a suitable girl. If the match-maker’s proposals are accepted
by the girl’s parents, a day is fixed on which the girl, attended by
two of her friends, goes to the house of the jag-m&njhi or superin-
tendent of morals, in order to give the bridegroom’s parents an
opportunity of looking at her quietly. A similar visit of inspection
is paid by the bride’s parents to the bridegroom’s house, and if every-
thing is found satisfactory the betrothal is concluded and an instal-
ment of the bride-prioe is paid. The ordinary prioe of a girl is
Rs. 3, and the bridegroom must also present a cloth (sdri) to the
girl’s mother and to both her grandmothers if alive. If more than
this is paid, the bridegroom is entitled to reoeive a present of a cow
from his father-in-law. In the case known as a goldt marriage, when
two families, eaoh having a daughter and a son of marriageable age,
arrange a double wedding, one daughter is set off against the other,
and no bride-price is paid by either party. For a widow or a woman
who has been divorced the bride-price is only half the standard
amount, the idea being, as the Sant&ls pointedly put it, that such
women are only borrowed goods, and must be given back to their first
husbands in the next world. As the second husband has the use of
his wife only in this world, it is dearly fair that he should get her for
half-price. In an early stage of the marriage ceremony both bride
and bridegroom separately go through the form of marriage to a
mahud tree (Bassia latifolia). In the case of the bride a double
thread is passed three or five times from the little toe of her left foot
to her left ear, and is then bound round her arm with some blades of
rice and stems of dhuba grass. The conjecture suggests itself that
this may be a survival of some form of communal marriage, but from
the nature of the case no positive evidenoe is available io bear out

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230

this hypothesis, or to throw any light upon the symbolism of the
usage. The essential and binding portion of the ritual is sindurddn,
the smearing of vermilion on the bride’s forehead and on the parting
of her hair. This rite, however, is supposed to have been borrowed
from the Hindus. The original Sant&l ceremony is believed to have
been very simple. The oouple went away together into the woods,
and on their return were shut up by themselves in a room. When
they oame out they were considered to be man and wife. A practice
closely resembling this was found by Colonel Dalton to be in vogue
among the Birhors, and it is quite in keeping with what is known of
the doings of primitive man in the matter of marriage. The
memory of it, however, only survives among the Sant&ls in the form
of a vague and shadowy tradition upon which no stress can be laid.
Sindurddn , on the other hand, is nothing but a refined and special-
ised form of the really primitive usage of mixing the blood of a
married couple and making them drink or smear themselves with the
mixture, and although it is possible that the Sant&ls may have
borrowed sindurddn from the Hindus, there are oertainly good
grounds for believing that the Hindus themselves must have derived
it from the Dra vidian raoes.

The seoond mode of marriage, ghardi jdwde , is resorted to when
a girl is ugly or deformed and there is no prospect of her being asked
in marriage in the ordinary way. An instance has been reported to
me in whioh a girl who had on one foot more than the proper
number of toes was married in this fashion. The husband is expected
to live in his father-in-law’s house and to serve him for five years.
At the end of that time he gets a pair of bullooks, some rice and
some agricultural implements, and is allowed to go about his busi-
ness.

The third form, itut, is adopted by pushing young men who are
not quite sure whether the girl they fanoy will accept them, and take
this means of compelling her to marry them. The man smears
his fingers with vermilion or, failing that, with oommon earth, and,
watching his opportunity at market or on any similar occasion, marks
the girl he is in love with on the forehead and claims her as his
wife. Having done this, he runs away at full speed to avoid the
thrashing he may expect at the hands of her relations if he is caught
on the spot. In any case the girl’s people will go to his village
and will obtain from the headman permission to kill and eat
three of the offender’s or his father’s goats, and a double bride-prioe
must be paid for the girl. The marriage, however, is legal, and if
the girl still declines to live with the man, she must be divoroed in
full form and oannot again be married as a spinster. It is said that
an itut marriage is often resorted to out of spite in order to subject
the girl to the humiliation of being divoroed.

The fourth form, nirbolok (mV, to run, and bobk, to enter) may
be described as the female variety of itut. A girl who cannot get the
man she wants in the regular way takes a pot of hdndid or rice-beer,
enters his house and insists upon staying there. Etiquette forbids
that she should be expelled by main force, but the man’s mother,
who naturally desires to have a voice in the selection of her

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8ANTAL.

daughter-in-law, may use any means short of personal violenoe to get
her out of the house. It is quite fair, for example, and is usually found
effective, to throw red pepper on the fire, so as to smoke the aspiring
maiden out ; but if she endures this ordeal without leaving the house,
she is held to have won her husband and the family is bound to
recognize her.

The fifth form, sanga, is used for the marriage of widows and*
divoroed women. The bride is brought to the bridegroom’s house
attended by a small party of her own friends, and the binding por-
tion of the ritual consists in the bridegroom taking a dimbu flower,
marking it with sindur with his left hand, and with the same hand
sticking it in the bride’s back hair.

The sixth form, hiring jatode, is resorted to in the comparatively
rare case when a girl has had a liaison with, and become pregnant
by, a man of her sept whom she cannot marry. In order that soan-
dal may be avoided, some one is procured to aooept the post of
husband, and in consideration of his services he gets two bullocks,
a cow and a quantity of paddy from the family of the man by
whom the girl is pregnant. The headman then calls the villagers
together, and in their presenoe declares the couple to be man and
wife, and enjoins the girl to live with, and be faithful to, the husband
that has been provided for her.

A widow may marry again. It is thought the right thing for
her to marry her late husband’s younger brother, if one survives him,
and under no circumstances may she marry his elder brother.
Divorce is allowed at the wish of either husband or wife. If neither
party is in fault, the one who wants a divorce is expected to bear the
expenses. The husband, for example, in such a case would not be
entitled to claim a refund of the bride-price originally paid, and
would also have to pay a fine and give the woman oertain customary
dues. If, on the other hand, it is the wife who demands a divoroe
without just cause, her father has to make good the bride-price in
addition to a fine for her levity of behaviour. The divoroe is effected
in the presenoe of the assembled villagers by the husband tearing
asunder three sdl leaves in token of separation, and upsetting a brass
pot full of water.

In the matter of inheritance Sant&ls follow their own oustoms,
T ... and know nothing of the so-called codes which

govern the devolution of property among
Hindus. Sons inherit in equal shares ; a daughter has no claim to
a portion as of right, but usually gets a cow given to her when the
property is divided. Failing sons, the father takes ; failing him, the
brothers; after them, the male agnates. Failing agnates, the
daughter inherits with suooession to her ohildren. If a man
dies leaving young sons, his widow manages the property till all
the sons are old enough to divide and start separate households.
She then takes up her abode with the youngest. Should the widow
marry outside the family, the male agnates take the property
in trust till the sons are of age, and she gets nothing. If a man has
male relatives, he cannot give away his property even to a son-in-
law. Wills are unknown.

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232

Aooording to Mr. Skrefsrud traoes may be disoemed in the
. background of the 8antAl religion of a

fainSant Supreme Deity called Thakur, whom
the SantAls have long oeased to worship for the sufficient reason
that he is too good to trouble himself about anybody and does
neither good nor ill to mankind. Some identify him with the Sun,
whom the SantAls regard as a good god and worship every fifth or
tenth year with sacrifices of slain goats. But this point is un-
certain, and I am myself inolined to doubt whether a god bearing
the Hindu name Thakur, and exeroising supreme powers whioh
mark a comparatively late stage of theological development, can
really have formed part of the original system of the SantAls. How-
ever this may be, the popular gods of the tribe at the present day
are the following : — (1) M a rang Buru, the great mountain or the
very high one, who now stands at the head of the SantAl Pantheon,
and is oredited with very far-reaching powers, in virtue of whioh he
associates both with the gods and with the demons. (2) Moreko,
fire, now a single god, but formerly known to the SantAls under
the form of five brothers. (3) d&ir Era, a sister of Moreko, the
goddess of the sacred grove set apart in every village for the
august presenoe of the gods. (4) Gosain Era, a younger sister of
Moreko. (5) ParganA, chief of the bongas or gods, and more especi-
ally.master of all the witches, bv reason of whioh latter functions
he is held in eepeoialreverenoe. (6) MAnjhi, a sort of second in com-
mand to ParganA, a personage who is supposed to be particularly
aotive in restraining the gods from doing harm to men. The two
latter are dearly deities constructed on the model of the communal
and village officials whose names they bear. The idea is that the gods,
like men, need supervising officials of this sort to look after them and
keep them in order. All the foregoing gods have their allotted place
in the saored grove (J&hirthdn), and are worshipped only in publio.
Marang Buru alone is also worshipped privately in the family.

Each family also has two speoial gods of its own — the Orak-
bonga or household god, and the Abge- Donga or seoret god. The
names of the Orak-bongas are (1) Baspahar, (2) DeswAU, (3) 8As,
(4) Goraya, (5) Barpahar, (6) Sarohawdi, (7) Thuntatursa. The
Abge-bongas are the following : — (1) Dharasore or Dharasanda, (2)
Ketkomkudra, (3) Champa-denagarh, (4) Garhsinka, (5) Lilaohandi,
(6) Dhanghara, (7) Kudrachandi, (8) Bahara, (9) DuArseri, (10)
Kudraj, (11) GosAin ErA, (12) Achali, (13) DeswAii. No Santal
would divulge the name of his Orak-bonga and Abge-bonga to any
one but his eldest son ; and men are particularly careful to keep
this saored knowledge from their wives for fear lest they should
acquire undue influence with the bongas, beoome witches, and eat up
the family with impunity when the protection of its gods has been
withdrawn. The names given above were disclosed to Mr. Skrefsrud
by Christian SantAls. When sacrifices are offered to the Orak-
bongas the whole family partake of the offerings; but only men
may touch the food that has been laid before the Abge-bongas.
These sacrifices take place on« e a year. No regular time is fixed,
and each man performs them when it suits his convenience.

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8ANTAL.

There still lingers among the Sant&ls a tradition of a 1 mountain-
god 9 (Buru-bonga) of unknown name, to
whom human saorifioes used to be offered,
and actual instances hare been mentioned to me of people being
kidnapped and sacrificed within quite recent times by influential
headmen of oommunes or Tillages, who hoped in this way to gain
groat riohes or to win some specially coveted private revenge.
These are not the motives whioh prompted human sacrifice among
the Kandhs of Orissa, a tribe whose internal structure ouriously
resembles that of the Sant&ls. The Kandh sacrifice was undertaken
for the benefit of the entire tribe, not in the interest of individual
ambition or malevolenoe. It is curious to hear that one of the men
credited with this iniquity was himself murdered during the Sant&l
rebellion of 1855, by being slowly hewn in pieces with axes, just
as his own victims had been — a mode of execution whioh certainly
recalls the well-known procedure of the Kandhs.

The ohief festival of the 8ant£ls is the Sohrai or harvest festival,
FeetivaiB. celebrated in Posh (November-Deoember) , after

m ' w the ohief rioe crop of the year has been got

in. Public saorifioes of fowls are offered by the priest in the
sacred grove ; pigs, goats and fowls are sacrified by private families,
and a general saturnalia of drunkenness and sexual lioense
prevails. Chastity is in abeyance for the time, and all unmarried
persons may indulge in promiscuous intercourse. This lioense, how-
ever, does not extend to adultery, nor does it sanction intercourse
between persons of the same sept, though even this offence, if
committed during the Sohrai, is punished less severely than at other
times. Next in importance is the Bahaptya , kept in Phalgun (Feb-
ruary-Maroh) when the sdl tree oomes into flower. Tribal and
family saorifioes are held, many victims are slain and eaten by the
worshippers, every One entertains their friends, dancing goes on day
and night, and the best songs and flute-musio are performed. A
peculiar feature of this festival is a sort of water-bottle in which
men and women throw water at eaoh other until they are completely
drenched.

Mention may also be made of Erok-sim, the sowing festival
kept in Asar (May- June) ; Hariar-sim, the feast of the sprouting of
the rioe in Bhadra (September-Oetober) ; Trigundli nauai, the
offering of the first fruits of the millets iri (Panioum millaoeum) and
pundit (Panioum frumentaoeum) also in Bhadra ; Janthar puja
in Aghran (October-N o vember) , the first fruits of the winter
rioe crop; Samkrdnt puja on the last day of Posh, when bread and
ohira and molasses are offered to dead ancestors ; M6gh-sim in
the month of M&gh, when the jungle grass is out. This is the
end of the Sant&l year. Servants are paid their wages and fresh
engagements are entered into. On this oooasion all the village
officials, the Manjhi, Par&m&nik, Jag Manjhi, J ag-par&m&mk,
Oorait. N&iki and Kudam-naiki go through the form of resigning
their appointments, and all the cultivators give notioe of throwing up
their lands. After ten days or so the manjhi or headman calls the
village together and says he has changed his mind and will stay on

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234

asmanjhi if the village will have him. His offer is acoompanied with
free drinks of rioe-beer, and is oarried by aoelamation. One by one
the other officials do the same; the ryots follow suit, and after
a vast amount of beer has been oonsumed the affairs of the village go
on as they did before. The Sima-bonga or boundary gods are
propitiated twice a year with sacrifices of fowls offered at the
boundary of the village where these gods are supposed to live. Jom-
sim puja is an offering of two goats, or a goat and a sheep, to the
sun. Every Sant&l ought to perform this sacrifice at least once in his
life. After a year's interval it is, or ought to be, followed by Kutam
dangra, when a cow is offered to the household god, and an ox to
Marang burn and to the spirits of dead ancestors. Mak-more puja,
literally ‘ the cut five/ is a sacrifice of three goats and many fowls
offered to More-ko, the god of fire, supposed to have been originally
five brothers, on occasions of public calamity, such as a failure of the
crops, an outbreak of epidemio disease, and the like.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of
SantAls in 1872 and 1881

District.

1871.

1881.

District.

1872.

1881.

Bard wan

4.487

6.806

Dacca

Bankura

26.378

80,034

Maimansinh

Birbhum

6.964

728

Chittagong ...

Midn.pur

96.921

Patna ...

Hug h ll

... 1

Tirhut

Howrah

... S

67i

Monghyr ...

...

13,967

24-ParganSs ...

814

HhAgalpur ...

16,468

Nadiya ...

Maldah

...

215

833

Jessore

San til PaiganAa

4,56,513

9,148

Khulna

.....

Cuttaok

...

Murohedabad

• •a

*3.002

1,663

Balaaora

§|#

1,176

389

Dinajpur

•••

1.039

6,813

Tributary States

76,548

922

Rajshahye ...

139

Hasaribagh ...

...

86,306

Bangpur

Lohardagi ...

...

1,204

Bom

252

Simrbhum ...

61,132

61,964

Pabna ...

•«*

130

Manbhum ...

132,446

86,403

Darjiling ».

...

Tributary States

...

17,216

The communal organization of the Sant&ls is singularly complete.

Communal oration. whole number of ^nages comprifling

a local settlement of the tribe is divided into

certain large groups, each under the superintendence of a parganait
or circle headman. This official is the head of the social system of
the inhabitants of his circle ; his permission has to be obtained for
every marriage, and he, in consultation with a panchayat of village
headmen, expels or fines persons who infringe the tribal standard of
propriety. He is remunerated by a commission on the fines levied,
and by a tribute in kind of one leg of the goat or animal cooked at
the dinner which the culprits are obliged to give. Eaoh village has,
or is supposed to have, the following establishment of officials
holding rent-free land

1. Manjhi. — Headman, usually also ijardar where the village is
held on lease under a zamindar, collects rents, and
allots land among the ryots, being paid for this by
the proceeds of the m&n land which he holds free of
rent. He reoeives Be. 1 as marocha at each wedding,
giving in return a full handi of rioe-beer.

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SAPANKOTYA.

2. Paramanik. —Assistant headman, also bolding some m&n
land.

’ Executive offioers, . respectively, of the
manjhi and the paramanik .who, as the
Sant&ls desoribe it, “ sit and give
orders,” which the Jag Manjhi and
c Tag Paramanik carry out.

Naiki . — "Village priest of the aboriginal deities.

c Tag Manjhi
Jag Paramanik

6. Kudam Naiki . — Assistant priest, whose peculiar function it

is to propitiate the spirits (bhuts) of the hills and jun-
gles by scratching his arms till they bleed, mixing
the blood with rioe, and plaoing it in spots frequented
by the bhits.

7. Oorait. — Tillage messenger, who holds m&n land and acts

as peon to the headman. The gorait is also to some
extent a servant of the zamindar. His chief duty
within the village is to bring to the manjhi and Para-
manik any ryot they want.

The communal circles of the 8antils seem to correspond olosely
to the mutas of the Kandhs and the parhas of the Mundas and
Oraons. It is a plausible oonjecture that among all these tribes
ihia organization was once connected with marriage, as it is among the
'Kanriha at the present day.

Santari, a section of the Maga-
hiyi sub-caste of Dorns in
Behar.

Sintaru, nsomaj or local group
of the Sibarna gotra of Pisohitya
Baidik Brahmans in Bengal.

S&ntrd, Sant , a title of Kai-
barttas, Telia, and Bigdis in
Bengal.

Santu Kus&et, a section of
the Ghosin sub-caste of Goilis
in Behar.

Sanuani, a sept of Dhenuirs
in Ghota Nagpur who cannot
wear gold.

Sanuir, a section of Goilis in
Behar.

Sanukra, a section of Ghisis
in Chota Nagpur.

Sanwani, a sept of Kaurs and
Bautins in Ghota Nagpur.

Sanwar, a goldsmith ; a
section of the Kdmi caste in Dar-
jiling.

Sanwasi, a section of Ghisis
in Chota Nagpur.

S£nw£t, a title of Gheros in
Palamau.

Saoan, a synonym for Pin and
Tinti.

Sioli, a sept of the Bhumij
tribe in Manbhum.

Saonra, a title of Goilis in
Behar; a sub-caste of Goilis in
Ghota Nagpur.

Saonsii, a sept of Pins in
Chota Nagpur.

Sdontdr, a synonym for SantaL

Sapankotyi, a that of the
Kannii gotra of Nepili Brha-
mans.

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6APD0HA.

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SABAJL

SapdohA, a seotion of BAb-
hans in Behar.

SapHArk, a pur or seotion of
SAkadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

SApkotA, a seotion of KAmis
in Darjiling.

SaptagrAmi, a sub* caste of
NApits and Telis in Bengal.

SaptagrAmi or Kusaddi, a
sub-caste of TAmbulis in Bengal.

SaptagrAmi or NadiyA t &
sub-caste of Subarnabamks in
Bengal.

Saptasati or SAtsati, a sub-
o&ste of Brahmans in Bengal who
numbered seven hundred when
Adisur brought the five Brah-
mans from Kanauj in order to
perform oertain jajna, owing to
their want of ceremonial purity.
They have sinoe become mixed
with the later emigrant Brahmans,

and consequently very few families
of them are now recognized by
the name of Saptasati.

SApui, a title of Pods in
Bengal.

SApurya or Bediyd-M&l, a
sub-caste of MAls in Midnapur
and Manbhum.

Sar , a synonym for Savars.

SAr, a sub-caste of BA jus in
Midnapur.

SarAf, a title of the AriAr sub-
caste of Bais Baniyas.

Sarai, a jungle fruit, a totem-
istic sept of Korwas and of Mun-
das in Chota Nagpur.

SarAihAt, a section of the SAt-
muliA MaghayA sub-caste of
KAndus in Behar.

Sarai yAr, a section of KAy-
asths in Behar.

Srdwak , a small caste of Chota Nagpur, who seem to
be a Hinduised remnant of the early Jain
0rigixL people, to whom local legends ascribe the

ruined temples, the defaced images, and even the abandoned copper
mines of that part of Bengal. The temples and images indeed are
proved by their well-marked and characteristic symbolism to be the
handiwork of Jain artists, while there is nothing primd facie improb-
able in the supposition that the mines also may be due to the
energy of this comparatively civilised race, whose well- wrought
stone pillars and lintels far surpass anything that the present
inhabitants of the provinoe can execute. Neither history nor
tradition throws any dear light upon the causes whioh oompelled
these peaceful settlers to desert the picturesque valleys, where we
find vestiges of their faith ; but if we may suppose the majority of
them to have been gradually driven out by the inoursion of the non-
Aryan races, nothing would be more likely than that the remnant
who remained behind, surrounded as they were by barbarians of
alien blood and religion, should have hardened into a caste suoh
as the SarAks form at the present day.

The SarAks have no sub-castes. Their sections are of the
eponymous type, and this faot, coupled with
internal rtrncture and their comparatively refined cast of features and
mamage. light oomplexion, seems to confirm their claims

to be deemed of Aryan desoenf. The prohibited degrees are the
same as in the case of high-caste Hindus. They marry their

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237

SABANGIHAR.

daughters as infants, forbid widows to remarry, and do not reoognize
divorce. Polygamy is permitted in so far that a man may take
a second wife if he has no hope of obtaining male issue by his first
wife. The marriage ceremony is of the standard type.

The Baraks of Manbbum, while retaining the tradition that their
ancestors were Jains, appear themselves to have
bglon ' completely adopted Hinduism. They worship

the ordinary Hindu gods with the assistance of Brahmans ; nor have
they retained, as might perhaps have been expected, any of the
characteristic tirthankaras or glorified saints of the Jains under the
disguise of minor or household gods. In LohardagA, on the other
hand, PArswanAth, the twenty-third tirthankara , who is believed to
have attained nirv&na on PArasnath Hill in Hazaribagh, is still
recognized by the SArAks as their chief deity, though they also
worship ShyAm Chand, RadhA Mohan, and JagannAth. Brahmans
officiate as their priests, and in no way forfeit their social reputation
by doing so. In all Jain temples, indeed, the ministrant priests are
Brahmans.

SArAks are skilful agriculturists, and are credited with having
introduced sugarcane cultivation on the plateau
*° cial Chota Nagpur. Most of them are oooupanoy
raiyats, and in parganA Sonpur of Lohardaga
a few villages are held by SArAks in permanency and at a fixed rent
by the tenure known locally as britt-bhandar . In point of social

standing they rank high, and Brahmans will take water and pakki
articles of food from their hands. Baraks themselves retain all the
prejudices of the Jains in regard to eating the flesh of any kind
of animaL Life may on no aooount be taken. Their diet therefore
consists entirely of vegetables ; and it is said that if in preparing
their food any mention of the word ‘ cutting ’ is made, the omen is
deemed so disastrous that every thing must be thrown away. Subject
to these conditions, BArAks will eat the leavings of Brahmans, and
will take water or sweetmeats from BAjputs, Baidyas, and KayAsths.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of
SArAks in 1872 and 1881 : —

Distbiot.

187*.

1881.

Distbiot.

1878.

1881.

Bard wan

Bankura ... m

lUngpnr

Patna

S&hbabad ...
Mosnfierpnr

Monghyr ...

8antil Farganis

Hasaribagh

Lohardagi

Manbhum ...

Tributary State*

1,658

8,887

448

108

1,518

8,818

S&r&liA, a sub-caste of Kum-
hArs and BhuinmAlis found in
NoakhAli.

S&ramba, a tigress, a totem-
istio sept of JuAngs in Orissa.

Sarangi, a section of Utkal or
Orissa Brahmans.

Sar&ngi, a thar or sept of
Mangars in Darjiling.

S&rangihar, a religious group
of Jugis.

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SARAOGI.

238

SABMA.

Saxacgr, a mercantile oaste
of Northern India closely allied
to the Agarwals and Oswals.
Like these, Saraogis are mostly
adherents of the Jain faith.
They profess to have 84 exogam-
ous groups deriving their names
from villages in Khandela and
Shekhawati. In marriage they
exclude both got#, like the Ma-
hesri, and reckon them on both
sides.

Sarari, a title of Byddhs who
kill birds by sar or arrows.

S&ras, a water-fowl, a totem-
istic sept of Bhuiyds and
Kharwars in Chota Nagpur.

Sdraswat, Sdrsath , Sarsati , a
territorial division of the Pancha
Gaura Brahmans foimd in Behar,
said to derive its name from hav-
ing originally dwelled in the
country watered by the river
Saraswati in the Pan j 6b.

Saraswati, a sect of Das-
ndmi Sannydsis.

Sarauli, a mul or section of
the Chhamulia Madhesid sub-
caste of Halwais in Behar.

Sarbbdnandi, a mel or hyper-
gamous sub-group of Kdrhi Brah-
mans in Bengal.

Sarbesia, a group of the
Purbba Kuliyd Sadgops.

Sardak-peapi, a sub-sept of
the Phejom sept of Limbus in
Darjiling.

Sard&r, a headman, a chief,
(i) In Bengal Proper an ironical
title of Tdntis, Bdgdis, Haris,
Dorns, Kahdrs, and other low
castes ; (ii) in Manbhum a title
of the Bhumij tribe, many of
whom are headmen of ghatwali
villages ; (iii) in the Santdl Par-
gands a title of Mai Paharids
and Santdls.

Saren, a sept of Santdls.

Sares Pargana Dad&dih, a

mul or section of the Naomulid or
Majraut sub-caste of Godlas in
Behar.

Sdrgdtid, a section of the
Biydhut and Kharidaha Kalwdrs
in Behar.

Sargrdmi, a gdin of the Kds-
yapa gotra or Bdrendra Brahmans
in Bengal.

Sarihin, a sept of the Patar-
Mahili sub-caste of Mdhilis in
Chota Nagpur.

Sarin, aseotion of the Dharkdr
sub-caste of Dorns in Behar.

Sariswe-Kh&ngor, a mul of
the Sdndil section of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar.

Sariswe-Sakuri, a mul of the
Sdndil section of Maithil Brah-
mans in Behar.

Sariydl t a gdin of the Bharad-
wdja gotra of Bdrendra Brahmans
in Beogal.

Sarjdl, a sept of Kaurs in
Chota Nagpur.

Sarjupari, see Sarwarid.

Sarkdr, a title of Brahmans ;
of Kurmis in Manbhum, used
both by members of the caste
and by outsiders ; of Jugis, Kai-
barttas, Kayasths, Ndpits, Pods,
Sadgops, and Tdntis in Bengal.

Sarkatd, a mul or section of
the Kanaujid sub-caste of Sondrs
in Behar.

§Atfei, the cobbler caste of
Nepal.

Sarmd, a synonym for Brah-
man ; a title of Dakshin-Bdrhi
and Bangaja Kdyasths.

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SAENABANIX.

239

SASMAL*

Samabanik , a synonym for Sama-KAmAr, a sub-caste of
Subarnabanik. KAmArs in Midnapur.

§atttakit, 8eird y the working goldsmith and silversmith caste
of Bengal, an artisan group, prooably traceable to the Karmakar
and wholly distinct from the Subarnabanik, who never work in
metal themselves. SarnakArs are divided into four sub-castes :
Brahman-desi, Dakhin-RArhi, Khatangi and Uttar-RArhi. They
have five exogamous groups, three Brahmanioal and two Sabantar
Bishi and Sa-nshi, suggestive of less distinguished associations,
(iirls are usually married as infants, but this is said not to be
obligatory — a view which is to some extent borne out by the fact
that a bride-price is paid, and the bridegroom-price characteristic of
the full development of infant-marriage has not yet been introduced-
The marriage ceremony is of the orthodox type ; its essential and
binding portion being the gift of the bride to the bridegroom and his
formal acoeptanoe of the gift. Widows may not marry again, and
divoroe is permitted only on the ground of the wife’s adultery.

The religion of the caste is that of the average middle Glass
Hindu— SAkta or Yaishnava as the case may be. The divine artisan,
YiswakarmA, is reverenced as the special patron of the caste. The
women have a special ceremony oalled SLulai, which is performed
during the rains without the assistance of any priest. Brahmans
are employed for religious and ceremonial purposes, but these
are not received on equal terms by those members of the sacred
order who serve the higher castes. The dead are burned, and the
srdddh ceremony performed one month after death. The caste
believe the business of a goldsmith to be their original oooupation,
but some of them engage in agriculture. Their social status is
low. None of the higher castes will take water from them, and
they admit that they will take water and sweetmeats from any
one except the very lowest oastes, such as HAri, Muchi and Dom.

Sarnar, a curry vegetable,
a totemistic sept of Mundas in
Chota Nagpur.

SarniA, a sept of the Suraj-
bansi division of RAjputs in Behar.

Sarno, a sept of Oraons in
Chota Nagpur.

Sarpa t snake, a totemistic
section of JagannAthi KumhArs
in Orissa.

SAru, a that or sept of Mangars
in Darjiling.

SaruA, a group of the PandA
sub-caste of Utkal Brahmans.

SarwAI, a section of the
Panchjati sub-caste of Khatris in
Bengal.

SarwariA or Saryupari, a
sub-caste of KanaujiA Brahmans
and Telis in Behar.

Sarwat, a section of Kanau-
jiA LohArs in Behar.

Sarwe, a section of BAbhans
in Behar.

SAsani or Srotriya, a sub-
caste of Utkal Brahmans in
Orissa.

SAsankhar, a seotion of
Kamis in Darjiling.

SAsmal, a title of Suklis and
Kaibarttas in Midnapur.

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SATAL.

240 SAUDAEPURAI-HAN 8AULI.

Satal, a thar or sept of the
Birah-Gurung sub-tribe of Gu-
rungs in Darjiling.

Satinandkhini, a mel or
hypergamous sub-group of Rirhi
Brahmans in Bengal.

Satapasti, Satpati,a group of
the Srotriya sub-caste of Utkal
Brahmans.

Satarw&r, a mul or section of
the Kanaujii sub-oaste of Haj-
jims in Behar.

Satchdsd , a synonym for Sad-
gop in Bengal.

Sites war i, a gdin of the 84
barna gotra of Birhi Brahmans
in Bengal.

S&tgharii, a sub-oaste of Ni-
pits in Bengal.

Satgop, a synonym for Sadgop
in BengaL

Sat Gos&in, a sub-sect of
Vaishnavas recruited from the
higher castes and distinguished
for their proselytising zeal.

Sithiet, a mul or section of
the Naomulii or Majraut sub-
oaste of Goilis in Behar.

Sit i si, a sub-caste of Dhobis
in Central Bengal.

S&tlakshe-Satauri a mul of
the Kisyapa section of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar.

S&tlakshe-S&tlaksha, a mul
of the Kisyap section of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar.

Sitting, a sept of Limbus in
Darjiling.

Satola, a thar or section of
Nepili Brahmans.

S&tori&i a section of Goilis
in the North-Western Provinces
and Behar.

Satri, a seotion of Sunris in
Behar.

Sitsaikiyi, a sub-caste of
Aguris in Western Bengal.

Satsudra, a group of castes
from whose hands a Brahman
can take water.

S&tt&i a section of Pitnis in
Eastern Bengal.

Sattyal, a thar or seotion of
Nepili Brahmans

Situn, a title of Barhis in
Behar.

Satya 9 truth, a section of
Jugis.

SAu, a seotion of Goilis in
Behar.

Sau or Chalita-Sau, a sub-
cast e of Sunris in Western
Bengal.

Sauar t a mul or section of the
Maghayi sub-caste of Kandus in
Behar.

Saubamii, a seotion of
Babhins in Behar. 4

Sauchind, a sub-oaste of Kur-
mis in Behar.

Saudi Biek t a mul or seotion
of the Satmulia or Kishnaut sub-
caste of Goilis in Behar.

Saudarpurii Mahia, a mul
of the Sindil seotion of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar.

Saudarpurii-Katki, a mul of
the Sindil section of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar.

Saudarpurii-Jagaur t a mul of
the Sandil section of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar.

Saudarpurii-Sarso, a mul of
the Sindil section of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar.

Saudarpurii-Suket, a mul of
the Sindil seotion of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar.

Saudarpurii-Hansauli, a mul
of the Sandil seotion of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar.

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8 AUD ARPU RAI- KHOER.

241

SAVAB.

Saudarpur&i-Khoir, a mul of
the S4ndil section of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar.

Saudarpur&i-Digaun, a mul
of the Sdndil section of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar.

Saudarpur&i-Kanhauli, a mul
of the S&ndil section of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar.

Saudarpur&i-M&nik, a mul of
the JS&ndil section of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar.

Saudarpur&i-Roh&r, a mul of
the Sandil section of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar.

Saudarpur&i-Sundar, a mul
of the S&ndil section of Maithil
Br&hmans in Behar.

Saudarpur&i-Dhaul, a mul
of the Sandil section of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar

Saudarpur&i-Baghit, a mul
of the S&ndil section of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar.

Saudarpur4i-Gaul, a mul of
the S&ndil section of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar.

Saui&i a sept of Hos in Sing-
bhum.

Sauk&lin, a seotion of Brah-
mans and of Kdyasths in Bengal.

Saul, fish, a sept of Fins in
Chota Nagpur.

S&ulok, a general term for
members of the S6h& or Sunri
caste.

Saunaka, a Kshatra-peta gotra
or seotion of Brahmans.

Saundika , a synonym for Sunri.

Saunt, a seotion of the B&ns-
phor sub-oaste of Dorns in Behar.

Sauntia-Kandh, a sub-tribe
of Kandhs in Orissa.

Saup&yan, a section of Brah-
mans and of Kayasths in Bengal.

Saur, a synonym for Savar;
a mul or section of the Kanaujid
sub-caste of Sonars and of
Go&l&s in Behar; a totemistio
section of Khariis and Turis
signifying a fish ; a totemistio sept
of Dorns and Cham&rs in Chota
Nagpur.

Saur&striya, a sub-oaste of
Brahmans found in Behar.

Sauriv&, a sub-oaste of Mau-
liks in Cnota Nagpur.

Saursambdr, a section of the
S&tmuli& Maghaya sub-oaste of
K&ndus in Benar.

Subar, Saur, Sar, Sayar , Suir, Swfri, a Dravidian
n cultivating and servile tribe of Orissa, Chota
Tradition* of ongm. ^ Vertem Bengal, Madras, and the

Central Provinces. Colonel Dalton regards them as Dravidian,*
while Friedrich Muller, 3 General Cunningham, 4 and Mr. R. Oust, 6

1 44 The origin of the name of Savara” says General Cunningham, 44 must
be sought for outside the language of the Aryans. In Sanskrit savara
simply means a 4 corpse.* From Herodotus* however, we learn the Scythian
word for an 4 axe ’ was sagaris ; and as g and v are interchangeable letters,
savar is the same word as sagar . It seems therefore not unreasonable to infer
that the tribes who were so called took their name from their habit of carrying
axes. How it is one of the striking peculiarities of the Savaras that they are
rarely seen without an axe in their hands. This peculiarity has been frequently
noticed by all who have seen them /* — Archeological Survey , xvii, 113.

3 Ethnology of Bengal , p. 149.

s Allgem . Ethnog.,4fi2 .

4 Acheolog. Survey , vol. xvii, p. 122.

1 Modern Languages of the Mast Indies , p. 85.

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SAVAB.

242

place them on linguistio grounds in the Kolari&b group of tribes.
The evidence from language, however, is meagre and inconclusive ;
while on the other hand it is tolerably certain that the Savars,
scattered and partially Hinduised as they are, represent the main
body of an ancient race, an isolated fragment of which survives in
the Mili or Saur of the Bajmahal hills. The Savars are usually
identified with the Suari and Sabarai mentioned by Pliny 1 and
Ptolemy . 2 General Cunningham shows in the paper referred to above
that the tribe is very widely diffused at the present day ; and local
tradition ascribes to the Savars the oonquest of the Cheros, and their
expulsion from the plateau of Shahabad, in about the year 421 of
the Silivihana era, or A.D. 500. A number of ancient monuments
in the Shahabad district are still put down to the Savars or
Suirn, who are supposed to have been driven south by the in-
road of BA j puts under the Bhojpur chief, which made an end of
their rule.

A good observer 3 describes the Savaras near Mahendragiri in
A Ganjam as small but wiry, often very dark in

Physi cs ’ oolour and sometimes quite black, which agrees

with Stirling’s account. 4 44 Their hair is generally tied in a top-knot,
and sometimes it is cut short over the forehead, two long locks being
permitted to hang over the ears. A few individuals have frizzled
shooks, with which no such arrangement is attempted. Most of the
men have small, square beards. The nose is in general broad, with
wide nostrils. Of those races in Bengal with whose appearance I am
familiar, they reminded me most strongly of the Bhumij, who belong
to the Munda family ; but I could also perceive in them some points
of resemblance to the Dravidian Paharias of the Bajmahal hills.
They have not, however, the manly bearing and good physique of

the latter Their manner of dancing resembles that

of the Bajmahal Paharias, as I have on one ocoasion witnessed it,
rather than that of either the Santals or Kols.”

The exogamous septs ourrent among the Savars of Bankura are
shown in Appendix I. The totems S&lmachh

b -raa ttruc -ure. an( j K&sibak occur also among the Bigdis and

several other Dravidian raoes of Western Bengal. The eponyms
Gargarishi and S&ndilya appear to have been borrowed from the
Brahmanical system. The Savars of Orissa are said to have no
septs, and it is possible that the Bankura branch of the tribe may
have picked up their totemistio septs locally. The case of the
Telingas (see article on that caste) rather Dears out this view.
Mention has been made in the article on the Mili tribe of the
remarkable fact that they have no exogamous divisions, and regulate
marriage by the more modem system of counting prohibited degrees.
It follows from this that the section-names of the Savars throw no
light upon their connexion with the Mile. Mr. W. B. Oldham,

1 Nat . Hist., vol. vi, 23. “ Suari, quorum Mons Mallus.”

2 Ptolemy VII, 1, 80. Lassen states that Karkaradama, the most
western of the cities of the Sabarai, was probably somewhere in Singbhum.

2 V. Ball Jungle Life in India, p. 267.

4 Stirling, Orissa , p. 42.

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243

8AVAB-

however, considers the two tribes to be one and the same, and this
view may, I think, be aooepted as correct.

The Savars of the Orissa Tributary States are divided into four
sub-tribes— Bendkar, Parird, dharud, and Palli — whioh are strictly
endogamous. The origin of the names is obscure, but it seems
possible that both Palli and Parird may have some reference to
the practice of using leaves as olothing. Vardha Mihira, quoted by
General Cunningham, speaks of the Parna or leaf-clad Savaras 1 ;
and a Savara messenger mentioned in the * Kathd Sarit S&gara is
a described as carrying a bow in his hand “ with his hair tied up in
a knot behind with a creeper, black himself and wearing a loin
cincture of vilwa leaves.”

Girls may be married either as infants or after they have
attained the age of puberty. Infant-marriage
amage * is deemed the more respeotable usage, but no

social stigma attaohes to a family which is unable by reason of
poverty or any other oause to oomply with the demands of fashion
on this point. Sexual license before marriage, though vehemently
condemned, is said to be tolerated, and if an unmarried girl becomes
pregnant her fault is condoned by marriage to the father of her child.
The Savars of Bankura observe a Hinduised ceremony, the binding
portions of which are gotrantar, or the transfer of the bride from her
own sept to that of the bridegroom, and the smearing of vermilion on
her forehead and the parting of her hair. In Orissa the ritual is
more simple, and appears to have been less affected by the influence
of Brahmanical usage. On the arrival of the bridegroom at the
bride’s house he is met by her female relatives, who gTeet him with
cries of lu lu , and burn ghi, rice, areca nuts, turraerio, eto., in his
honour. This is followed by a curious praotioe, called seka, believed
to be peculiar to the Savars, in which the bridesmaids warm the tips
of their fingers at a lamp and press them on both oheeks of the
bridegroom. The couple then pass on towards the bedi , a raised
platform of earth, in the courtyard of the house, stopping on the
way to sprinkle each seven times with a mixture of mustard seed and
salt. On reaching the bedi they make two and a half turns round
a pot of water, in whioh are mango leaves, after which an elder of the
tribe, nominated as priest for the occasion, makes them sit down side
by side, and binds their hands together with durba grass and leaves
of the borkoli plum tree. This is the closing and essential part of the
oeremony. The bride-price varies with the means of the families.
Among the Bendkar Savars. according to Colonel Dalton, it comprises
two bullocks — one for the girl’s father and another for her maternal
uncle — and a cloth and oue rupee presented to her mother.

Polygamy is permitted, and no theoretical limit is set to the
number of wives a man may have Few Savars, however, indulge
in more than two, and usually a second wife is only taken in the
event of the first being barren. In Orissa (but not in Bankura),
a widow may marry again, and is ordinarily expected to marry her

1 Professor Kern identifies the Parna Savaras with the Phyllit® of
Ptolemy, bat explains the name to mean “ feeding upon leaves," which seems
improbable.

9 2

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SAVAR.

244

first husband’s younger brother or oousio. No compulsion, however,
is exercised in the matter, and a widow may marry any one she
pleases, provided that she returns to her father’s house and remains
unmarried for a year after her first husband’s death. No regular
ceremony is ordawed for use on such occasions, and the union is
celebrated by a feast given to the relations of both parties. Divorce
is permitted for adultery or any other serious conjugal offence.
The case is considered by the members of the husbaud’s family,
who, if they find it impossible or unadvisable to effect a reconciliation
between the parties, formally escort the woman to the house of her
father or guardian and leave her there. Divorced wives may marry
again in the same manner as widows.

The Savars of Bankura have become thoroughly Hinduised,
and Brahmans serve them as priests in the
hglon * worship of the standard gods. These Brah-

mans are received on equal terms by the purohit s of Bagdis, Koras,
Kewats, and other low castes. In Orissa the original faith of the
tribe has been less modified by the influence of Hindu usage. The
worship of the Brahmanical deities is indeed gaining ground among
them, but the elder gods, Th&npati, who dwells in the than or
saored grove of the village, and “ Bansuri or Th&kurcuni, no doubt
the same as the blood-thirsty she-devil revered by the Bhuiy&p,” 1
still receive offerings of goats or fowls at the hands of the elders of
the community, who have not yet been supplanted in their office by
the professional Brahman.

The Orissa Savars recognize both burial and cremation as proper
_ ■ modes of disposing of the dead. The Bankura
lspoaa o e e . branch of the tribe only burn, and perform the
ceremony of sraddh more or less in aooordanoe with regular Hindu
usage.

The Savars believe their original condition to have been that of
a wandering tribe, roaming through the hills
Occupation. of ^ chota Nagpur, living on the

fruits of the forest and acknowledging the rule of no recognized
cliief. The memory of this primitive state is almost the only
tradition which the tribe still preserve, and it can hardly be doubted
that this primitive mode of life must have lasted, at any rate among
some branches of the Savars, down to comparatively recent times.

The bulk of the tribe have taken to plough cultivation and
massed themselves in regular villages ; but the Bendkars of Keunjhar
still adhere in the main to the nomadic habits which their traditions
describe. An interesting account of this branch of the Savars was
given in 1842 by Colonel Tickell, of the South-West Frontier Agency,
who found them inhabiting a tangled tract of hill and forest bounded
on the north and north-east by the cultivated land of the Ho com-
munities or pirs of Kotgarh and Bar. They had lost their primitive
dialect, and spoke either Ho or Uriya. In physical appearance they
resembled the Bhuiy&s of that part of the country, and were fair,

1 Dalton, Ethnology , p. 149. Thakuraini, it should be stated, is the name
of a range of hills in the north of Keunjhar.

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245

SAYAB.

well-made, and intelligent. They worshipped K61i, with several minor
tutelary deities. In matters of food they appear to have been rather
exolusive. A Bendkar would take water from a Ho, but would not
eat with him, nor would he touch any food that had been oooked by a
Hindu. Their material condition was extremely poor. They possessed
no cattle, and only a few fowls. The houses were mere novels, not
massed together in villages, but dotted about on the hillside in
separate groups of two or three, like those of Birhors in Palamau.
The crops usually cultivated were maize, high-land rice (gora dhdn),
and gram (chand), whioh were grown in straggling fields formed by
banking up the hillside water-courses. Edible jungle produots were
largely used for food, and frequently made up an entire day’s sub-
sistence. They paid no rent for their land, but were liable to be
called upon for begirt or gratuitous labour by the Raj & of Kalikapra-
s&d in Keunjhar. Their funeral ceremony consisted in simply burn-
ing the dead body ; they did not collect the ashes from the pyre, nor
did they, like the Kols, destroy any of the deceased person’s property
with his corpse.

In writing of the same people Colonel Dalton 1 specially notices
. their style of dancing : — “ The girls dance

cmg * with their heads covered, bodies much inclined ,

and faces looking to the ground or to their feet, whioh have to
perform a somewhat intricate step ; the right hand holds down at
arm’s length the portion of the dress that is thrown over the head.
The men, playing on tambourines or half drums, sing as they dance.
The girls appear too intent on their steps to respond to them ; but
their peculiar attitude in the dance, the steps, and the melody, are
the same for all Bhuiy&s, and are unmistakeable characteristics of
the race from the Ganges to the Mah&nadi. The Kolarian dances
are quite different.” It seems to me that the argument from
similarity of oustom to tribal affinity has in this oase been pressed too
far. Subject races everywhere have not been slow to imitate the
usages of the dominant people with whom they were brought into
oontaot, and the Savars have been too long under the virtual oontrol
of the Bhuiyds for it to be at all surprising that they should have
adopted the danoes characteristic of the latter. The Kolarian races,
on the other hand, have either maintained their isolation and inde-
pendence or have been brought in oontaot only with Hindus, whose
ideas on the subject of dancing would certainly not oommend them-
selves to a sociable non- Aryan community.

Regarding the Bendkar methods of agriculture, Colonel Dalton 9
u , . observes — “When first I saw the Bendkar

eo agn ure. hand-plough it was of wood, — only a branch
cut with a large piece of the stem, from which it sprung attached,
and that shaped so as to give it the appearance of a miniature Native
plough ; but they have improved on this, and now insert a pieoe of
iron as a share, in further imitation of the Native plough. The
implement answers well enough in preparing for seed the light

1 Ethnology of Bengal, p. 150.
s Ditto, p. 152.

Digitized by LjOOQLe

8 AVAR.

248

8EBAKA.

vegetable mould of the forest, to which they oonfine their cultivation ;
but in a stiff day it would be inoperative. The hill Bendkars
cultivate kangni (Panioum Italioum), kheri, khodo (Eleusine ooraoana)
or maruQy gangoi makai (Zea mays) or maize, a species of coxcomb,
the seeds of which they eat, a cereal called siko, and a large bean*
whioh is intoxicating or acts as an emetic if eaten raw, but is pleasant
and wholesome when well cooked ; also urid. They have ordinarily
no rice cultivation. They know well and use all the spontaneous
edible productions of the forests, and showed me some wild yam^
whioh they largely consume; they take an immensity of cooking.
Here the suggestion seems to be that the Bendkar plough was
consciously shaped in imitation of the implement oommonly in use in
India. It is, however, possible, and I think on the whole more
probable, that it represents the earliest form of the Indian plough — a
type whioh, though improved out of all recognition in the plains, may
still be traced baok to the dumsy wooden hoe whioh the Bendkar
drags after him through the light ashes of his plot of jhurn land.

The social position of the Orissa Savars, like that of many
non- Aryan tribes, does not admit of precise
Social utatu*. definition. Hindus alone are recognized
members of the caste system, and the Savars have not yet come to be
admitted as members of the Hindu community, though their
promotion to that position cannot long be deferred, iheir hrst
step will doubtless be to provide themselves with Brahmans, as the
Savars of Bankura have already done. The latter affect to maintain
a high standard of ceremonial purity, and will not take cooked food
from the hands of any one except a Brahman. Their pretensions,
however, are not admitted by their neighbours, and at present their
social rank is certainly not higher than that of Bigdis, Loners,
Koras, and «i™iW castes who hang on the outskirts of the Hindu

sooia^^Btom.^^g 8 b ows the number and distribution of the
Savar tribe in 1872 and 1881

District.

1878.

1881.

District.

1872.

1881.

Midnapur

Cntt&ck

Puri

Balaam ••• ,

16,580

14,179

446

1,462

20,217

17,288

692

Tributary States, Orissa...

Singbhum

M&nbhum ... ...

Tributary States

86,845 J
277

106

20,871

494

197

190

Savar-Munda, a sub-tribe of
Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Sawani, a sept of Gonds in
Chota Nagpur.

S&want, a section of the Maga-
hiy& sub-caste of Boms in Behar.

Sawdsi, a synonym for Pin.

Sayar , a synonym for Savar.

Sebak, a title of the so-called
pure Sudras who perform per-
sonal servioe for Brahmans.

Sebaka or Murhia. a group
of the Pandd sub-caste of tJtkal
Brahmans.

Digitized by {jOOQie

8EDUAH.

247

8ENGRA.

Seduah, a sept of Limbus in
Daijiling.

Sege, a sept of ChakmAs in the
Hill Tracts of Chittagong.

Segmang, a thar or sept of
the BArah-Ghirung sub-tribe of
Gtmings in Darjiling.

8egul t a sept of RAjputs in
Behar.

SejagA, a gain of the SAndilya
gotra of RArhi Brahmans in
Bengal.

Sekowa, a sept of ChakmAs
in the Hill Tracts of Chittagong.

Sekr A, a synonym for SamakAr.

a sweeper caste of Eastern Bengal, now converted to
Islam and a dmi tted to worship in the mosque and to the privilege
of burial in the public graveyard. With their conversion the
Sekris have abandoned their original occupation and now taken
to cultivation and to the manufacture of lucifer matches, or rather
spills of wood tipped with sulphur. All of them assume the title
Shaikh, of which Sekri may perhaps be a derivative. Their
personal names are generally taken from the day of the week, or
from the month in which they were born. Thus Shaikh RamazAn
and 8haikh Itwari are common appellations.

Sekwahdeng, a sept of Lim-
bus in Darjiling.

Sem, a title of Kaibarttas in
Bengal.

Semanohangiar, a sept of
Loliars in Chota Nagpur.

SemArbAr, a sub-caste of Bel-
dArs in Behar.

SemAri, a sub-caste of Kai-
barttas and Gonrhis in Behar.

Semarkanda, ri>ot, a sept of
Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

SemarwAr, a sub-caste of
NuniAa in Behar.

Semerya, a sub-caste of Barais
in Behar.

SemraiAn, a section of
BAbhans in Behar.

Sen, a family title of Siddha
Baidyas, BAruis, and MayarAs ; of
Dakshiii-RArhi and Bangaja
KAyasths and of Subarnabaniks ;
of BAitis, SAnkhAris, and of TAm-
bulis in Bengal.

SenApat, a section of Maghaiya
KumhArs in Behar.

SenApati, general, a group of
the Srotriya sub-caste of Utkal
Brahmans ; a title of KhandAits
in Orissa.

SenbhumiA, a sub-oaste of
Telis in Western Bengal.

Sendara-Nagasia, a sub-tribe
of NAgesars who use sindur at
marriage.

SenduriAr, a pur or section of
SAkadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Sene, a sept of Limbus in
Darjiling.

Senel, a dugu or section of the
Kochh-Mandai in Daooa. The
name indicates the original
habitat of the group, probably a
hill or village in Assam, and has
no bearing upon marriage.

SengAr, a sept of the Chandra-
bansi division of RAjpnts in
Behar.

Sengra, horse, a totemistio sept
of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Digitized by {jOOQie

8ENTHANG.

248

SHBHEDPURIA.

Senihang, sons of the snow-
chief, a sept of the Phed&b sab-
tribe of limbus in Daqiling.

SenpuriA, a section of Bano-
dhiA and JaiswAr Kalwlrs in
Behar.

SenthA, a sept of the RautAr
sub-tribe of ThArus in Behar.

SeonArAyani, a religious sect
found in Benar. 8ee Sivndrdini,

SeorniA, a sept of Mundas in
Chota Nagpur.

SepAri, a sub-caste of GoAlAs
in Behar.

Serhar f a kind of bird, a to-
temistio sept of Mundas in Chota
Nagpur.

Serling, the thief, a sept of
the Yangorup sub-tribe of lim-
bus in Darjiling.

Serma, rent-oollector, a sept of
the PAnthar sub-tribe of Limbus
in Darjiling.

Serwa, a section of Mangars
in Darjiling.

Set, Seth, a chief merchant,
from Sanskrit sreshtha , ‘best* or
* chief,’ (i) a title of Telis; (ii) a
leading banker or trader among
the Marwari BaniyAs, usually
Jains ; (iii) a section of the OswAl
BaniyAs.

Set or Set-tAlwAr, a seotion of
the ChArjAti sub-oaste of Kha-
tris in Bengal.

Setarapa, dog-eater, a totem-
istic sept of Mundas in Chota
Nagpur.

Seth, a section of the BanodhiA
and JaiswAr KalwArs in Behar.

SetisurwAI, a thar or sept of
Mangars in Darjiling.

8etu, a gdin of the SAbarna
gotra of BArendra Brahmans in
Bengal.

Setu-SuruAI, a section of
KAmis in Darjiling.

§OXli, people of different
lower castes in Central Ben-
gal who extract the juice of the
date-palm and prepare molasses
from it. See Siuli.

Sewar, moss, a totemistio sept
of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

ShahA, a sub-caste of Sunris
in Eastern Bengal who have
given up their original and taken
to other professions, and thereby
raised themselves above their
caste brethren who sell wine, so
that at present they consider the
Sunris to be a caste different
from, and considerably inferior
to, them.

Shdha , a synonym for Sunri.

ShAhA, see SAhA«

ShAhi Ugrakhatri, a sub-caste
of Aguris in Western Bengal
bearing the title ShAh.

Shaini, a dugu or seotion of
the Kochh-MAndAi in Dacoa.

Shakya LAma, a thar or sept
of Gurungs in Darjiling.

Shalankyana, a gotra or seo-
tion of the Baidya caste in
Bengal.

Shang-dah-bo, a rut or sept
of . the Tongdu sub-tribe of
Dejong Lihoris, whose anoestor
was bom at his maternal uncle’s
when some tutelary deities were
being propitiated.

Shdri, a synonym for BhAt.

Shehedpuria, a section of
MaghayA Dhobis in Behar.

Digitized by {joc Me

SHELO.

249

SIDDHI-PUTftA.

Shelo, sub-tribe of the Bhumij
tribe in Chota Nagpur who are
iron-smelters.

Sheo, a thar or sept of Man-
gars in Darjiling.

Sheor, fish, a totemistio sept
of Kharwars in Chota Nagpur.

Sherbd Khor, a seotion of
Murmis in Darjiling.

ShergarhiA, a sub-caste of
LohArs in the SantAl Pargan£s.

Shewa, a thar or sept of
D&mis in Darjiling, whose chief
profession is sewing.

Shikhu Karmak&r, a sub-
oaste of K&m&rs in Noakhali.

Sikkhdar, Shikdar, Sikdar , a
title of Sudras in Eastern Bengal ;
an honorary title of Kdyasths
and NApits in Bengal ; an
officer in oharge of a shikk or
fiscal division under the Mahom-
edan revenue system; a title of
Brahmans, possibly of families
descended from some one who
held the office of shikdar ; a title
of Kap&lis and Sunris.

Shirasina, a sub-caste of
Sunris in Maldah.

ShoAlviA, a sept of Chakm&s
in the Hill Tracts of Chittagong.

Shush ich&, a thar or sept of
SunuwArs in Darjiling.

Shyag-ch om-bo, a rut or sept
of Dejong Lhoris, the members
of which are the descendants of
emigrants from Bhotan and
Nepal.

Shyag-ding-pA or Shyag-
tshang-pA, a rui or sept of the
Rui-ohhung sub-tribe of Dejong
Lhoris or Bhotias of the south.

Shyag-tsangpA, a rui or sept
of Dejong Lhoris, the members

of which form the lowest class of
Bhotias.

Shyah-pA, a rut or sept of
Dejong Lhoris whose ancestor
had emigrated from North
Bhotan.

Shyang-ba, a rui or sept of
Sherpa Bhotias of Nepal.

SiAr, jackal, a totemistio seo-
tion of Kurmis in Chota Nagpur
and Orissa ; a sept of Asuras.

SiArahA, a seotion of the
BanodhiA and JaiswAr KalwArs
in Behar.

SiArik, again of the SAbarna
gotra of BArhi Brahmans in
Bengal.

SiAr T uyio, jackal, atotemistio
sept of Mundasin Chota Nagpur.

Sibala, a sub-sept of the BesrA
sept of SantAls.

SibingAre, a sept of the Ag-
niA sub-tribe of Meches in the
Darjiling Terai.

Sib-rAsi, a section of MAlos
in Eastern Bengal.

Siddh, a thar or sept of Ghi-
rungs in Darjiling.

Siddha, a hypergamous group
of the BArendra KAyasths in
Bengal.

Siddhal, a gain of the SAbar-
na gotra of RArhi Brahmans in
Bengal.

Siddha-Maulik, a hypergam-
ous group of the Dakshin-RArhi
KAyasths in Bengal.

Siddha-Srotriya, a hypergam-
ous group of RArhi Brahmans
in Bengal.

Siddhi-putra , a synonym for
BhuinmAli.

Digitized by {jOOQie

SIDHPUB.

250

31 KRA.

8idhpur 9 a mul or seotion of
the ChhamuliA Madhesia sub-
caste of Halwiis in Behar.

Sidhyaf, a thar or seotion of
NepAli Brahmans.

Sidup or Siduk, a bundle of
straw, a sub-sept of the Saren
sept of SAntals.

SigadiA, a seotion of GoAlAs
in the North-Western Provinces
and Behar.

Siharii a gdin of the SAndilya
gotra of BArendra Brahmans in
Bengal.

SihAsme-Khor, a mul of the
SAndil seotion of Maithil Brah-
mans in Behar.

SihAsme-SihAsarrii a mul of
the SAndil seotion of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar.

SihogiA, a seotion of BAbhans
and a sept of BAjputs in Behar.

Sihori&i a section of BAbhans
in Behar.

SihujiA, a section of BAbhans
in Behar.

Sijapati, a thar or sept of
Mangars in Darjiling.

Sikalgar, a seotion of the Mag-
hayA sub-caste of Barhis m
Behar; a title of LohArs or
Elmars.

SikAri, a seotion of KumhArs
in Singbhum.

SikAuriAr, a pur or seotion of
SAkadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Sikbandhera, a seotion of the
AriAr sub-oaste of Bais Baniyds
in Behar.

Sikcharo, a bird, a totemistio
sept of Mundas in Chota Nag-

SikdAr, a sept of MAI PahA-
riAs; a hypergamous group of
Kaibarttas in Bakarganj.

Sikhari A, a sub-caste of Bauris,
KarangAs, KorAs, and Kurmis in
Chota Nagpur, who derive their
name from Sikharbhum, the tract
of oountry north of the Damudar
river, corresponding roughly to
the limits oi the rachet estate.
In this connexion it deserves
notice that Samet Sikhar is an old
name for PArasnAth Hill, which is
conspicuously visible from every
part of Sikharbhum, and may
almost be looked upon as forming
the western boundary of the
tract. See Statistical Account of
Hazaribagh, p. 217. In the
case of the Bauris, the SikhariA
sub-caste is also called Gobaria,
which may perhaps have some
reference to gobar, ‘cow-dung/ as
Bauri women earn money by
making the oow-dung cakes used
for hiel ; a sub-caste of BajwArs,
and of Dorns in South Manbhum.

SikhariA or SindurtopA, a
sub-caste of Telia in Western
Bengal.

SikhariyA or Meno , a sub-tribe
of Bhumijs in Chota Nagpur.

SikhoriAp a sub-caste of Sun-
ris in Behar who deal in liquor.

SikhwAd, a seotion of GoAlAs
in the North-Western Provinces
and Behar.

8ikiA, a mul or section of the
ChhamuliA MadhesiA sub-caste of
HalwAis in Behar.

SikUgar , a cleaner of weapons.

SikiyA, chain, a sub-sept of
the Murmu sept of SantAls.

SikrA, hawk, a totemistio
sept of Mundas and PAns in
Chota Nagpur.

Digitized by {jOOQie

SIKRAB.

351

SILAEI.

Sikrar, a pangat or section of
Binsphor Doms in Behar.

Sil, a title of Subamabaniks
and Napits; of Dakabin B&rhi
and Bangaja EAyasths and of

Tdntis in Bengal; a section of
Oswti Baniy&s in Behar.

Silaichid, a section of Son&n
in Behar.

(Sansk. Sila, a stone), a magician employed in Eastern
Bengal to protect crops from hailstones. Formeny the §il£ri, like
the GArapagdri of the Central Provinces, was a paid village servant ;
and officiated as priest at an annual festival performed for the benefit
of the crops. Now the festival has fallen into disuse, and a member
of any caste may beoome a SilAri, being remunerated in kind — it is
unlucky to give him money — according to the success of his enchant-
ments. Chandals, Jogis, and Bair&gls are the ordinary SilAris, but
a Muhamadan often aots as one, his co-religionists believing as
implicitly in this oocult science as their Hindu brethren.

“ At the present day,” says Dr. Wise, “ this magical art is falling
into disrepute, and it is no unusual thing for the peasantry to
punish a §ilari who fails to proteot their fields. The §il&ris confess
that their skill is inadequate to call down a storm on a neighbour’s
crop, as was formerly done ; but they still profess ability to drive
away a cloud threatening any tract of oountry.

“ As hailstorms in Beugal ooour usually in March and April,
when the Boro-dhAn, or spring rioe, is in the ear, the services of
the magician are called for in low lands, where this crop is cultivated.
When a storm is impending the §ilArl, summoned by the peasantry,
rushes, almost naked, from his hut, with a rattan wand in his right
hand. Invoking Parameswara, the supreme god, he asoends a
mound, where, spreading abroad his hands, and waving his rod to
indicate the direction the storm-oloud is to take, he recites one or
other of the following doggerel incantations in the vernacular : —

0 Narasinha f Narasinha I mighty Narasinha ! whom the four-
teen gods fear ;

On hearing the name Narasinha the gods and spirits bend their
heads ;

My Guru’s name is Hira. Wherever you go that quarter of
the world is subdued,

Whether it oonsists of hills or mountains, trees or jungle.

Should this charm of mine fail, MahAdeva’s hair will be up-
rooted and fall off.

Diamonds cut stones.

Rivers retire before them.

A gold knife is keen as a diamond.

I have out it this day into thirty-two.

Begone to the mountains of the north

Having paid you tribute to the south.

Having scattered you, I go home.

My name is §iva ^Sankara.

Digitized by {jOOQie

SILABI.

252

SLNGDLUL

u The above metrioal rhapsody was obtained from Rdl Ghand *
Bairigf, a celebrated §ildri, residing at Shdmgdon, in Tipperah.”

Silewdr, a sept of R&jputs
inBehar.

Silhatia or Sirotia , a sub-
caste of Dos&dhs in Behar.

Si Shot ia or Jeswar Kurmi, a
sub-caste of Dh&nuks in Behar
who call themselves Kulin .

Si Hi, a sept of the Patar sub-
caste of Maliilis oalled after the
ancestral burying place of the
group ; a kind of fisn, a totemistio
sept of Korwas and Pdns in Ghota
Nagpur.

Silongchhd, a thar or sept of
Khambus in Darjiling.

Siloth&er, a section of Maj-
raut Godlds in Behar.

SimalwdI, a section of GodlAs
in the North-Western Provinces
and Behar.

Simar, a section of Kamar-
kalla Sonars in Behar.

Simarldsa, a tree, a totemistio
seotion of Ghdsis in Chota Nag-
pur.

Simarlokdy a sub-caste of
Ghdsis in Chota Nagpur.

Simbiy a gdin of the Bharad-
wdja gotra of Bdrendra Brah-
mans in Bengal.

Simkhdrd, a thar or seotion of
Nepali Brahmans.

Simldi, a gdin of the Kdsyapa
and Bdtsya gotras of Bdrhi Brah-
mans in Bengal.

Simliy a gdin of the Bdtsya
gotra of Bdrendra Brahmans in
Bengali

Sindgar, a mul or section of
the Chhamulid Madhesid sub-
caste of Halwdis in Behar.

Sincheuli, a thar or sept of
Hangars in Darjiling.

Sinchiori, a section of Kdmis
in Darjiling.

Sindhikurid, a totemistio sept
of Pdns in Chota Nagpur who
cannot touch the horns of a bulL

Sindhurishi, a section of Telis
in Bengal.

Sindhwatid, a section of
Bhats.

Sindur, a totemistio sept of
Mundas in Chota Nagpur who
do not use vermilion in mar-
riages.

Sindur id, Sindurhdr, a class
of Bania who sell sindur or ver-
milion ; also a class of Brahmans
or Kayasths who formerly prac-
tised as inoculators, but are now
employed as vaooinators ; a sub-
caste of Mdls in the Santdl
Pargands.

Sindurid, a red paint, a sec-
tion of Binjhids ; a sept of
Ed j puts.

Sing, a title of Khambus and
Mangars in Darjiling.

Singd-ore, a section of KA mia
in Darjiling.

Singar, a section of Murmis
in Darjiling ; a sept of Kaurs in
Chota Nagpur.

Singauri, a thar or sept of
Mangars in Darjiling.

Singden, a section of Mur-
mis in Darjiling.

Singdidr, a gdin of the Sdbar-
na gotra of Bdrendra Brahmans
in Bengal.

Digitized by ^.oosle

SINGDYANGL

253

SIB KM.

Singdyang, a sept of Lep-
ohas in Darjiling.

Singh, a title of Oswdl Ban-
yds, Bdbhans, Godlds, Ksha-
triyas, Kurmis, and Rdjputs in
Behar ; a title of Subarnabaniks
in Manbhum. Intermarriage is
prohibited within the title. A
section and a title of Kdyasths in
Behar; a section of Rajwdrs ; a
sept of Mimdas and Pdns in
Chota Nagpur whose totem is
horn ; a title of Tdmbulis in
Bengal.

Singhal, a gotra or seotion of
the Agarwdls in Behar.

Singhdras, a section of
Madhesid Halwdis in Behar.

Singhazdri, a sub-caste of '
Sunris and Telia in Western
Bengal.

Singh i, fish, a sept of Pdns
in Chota Nagpur ; a section of
Oswdls.

Singh-rdsi, a seotion of Mdlos
in Eastern Bengal.

Singhror, a section of Gorid
Godlds in Behar.

Singi, horn, a totemistic sept
of Chiks in Chota Nagpur.

Singjangkuk, a sept of Lim-
bus in Darjiling.

Singjuk, a sept of limbus
in Darjiling.

Singogpa, a sept of the Phe-
ddb sub-tribe of Limbus in Dar-
jiling.

Singpurid, a sept of Birhors
in Chota Nagpur.

Singydl, a thar or section of
Nepdli Brahmans.

Sing-yangma, a sept of the
Phdgu sub-tribe of Yakhas in
Darjiling.

Sinha, lion, a title of Khan-
ddits in Orissa ; of Kdyasths and
Subarnabaniks in Bengal ; of
f&djus in Midnapur.

Sinhi, a seotion of Kumhdrs
in Siugbhum.

Sinhinid, a sept of Bdjputs
in Behar.

Sinjali, a thar or sept of Man-
gars in Darjiling.

Sinjhikharid, a sept of Pdns
in Chota Nagpur.

Sinjikuria, a sept of Chiks in
Chota Nagpur.

Sinkoi, a sept of Dos in Sing-
bhum.

Sipdhi, a title of Bdjputs in
Behar.

Sipahiyd, a section of Bdns-
phor Dorns in Western Behar.

Sir, arrow, a totemistio sept of
Godlds in Chota Nagpur.

Sird, a section of Maghayd
Kdndus in Behar.

Sirasinthi, a gain of the Bha-
radwdja gotra of the TJttar-
Bdrendra Brahmans in Bengal.

Sirasthdn, a sub-caste of
Kumhdrs in Pabna.

Siridr, a seotion of Bdbhans
in Behar.

Sirkar, a section of the Bdns-
phor sub-caste of Dorns in Behar.

Sirkid, * the dweller in a sirki
hut/ a designation of Nats,
Bediyds, and other wandering
castes of the gipsy type, derived
from the materials of the tem-
porary huts whioh they build.

Digitized by {jOOQie

SIEMAUE.

254

SKANDHASURJl.

Sinmaur, a sept of R&jputs in
Behar.

Sirmauridr, a/wr or section of
Sdkadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Sirn&it, a sept of the Suraj-
bansi division of R&jputs in
Behar.

Sirnet, a sept of Rajputs in
Behar.

Sirni&, aseptof the Surajbansi
division of Rajputs in Behar.

Sirot&t a sub-oaste of Dha-
nuks in Behar.

Sirpur, a section of the Tir-
hutiyd sub-caste of Dorns in
Behar.

Sirsait, a section of Bdbhans
in Behar.

Siruar, a sept of Birhors in
Chota Nagpur.

Sirw&r, a section of the
Dhaprd and PaohainyA sub-castes
of Dorns in Behar.

Sisab v a section of Karan
Kdyasths in Behar.

Sisaundi&, a section of Son&rs
in Behar.

Sisauri&, a mul or section of
the Ayodhiabasi sub-caste of
Sonars in Behar.

Sisingi, a river fish with two
thorns on its head, a totemistic
sept of Kumhars in Chota Nag-
pur.

SisodhiA, a sept of Surajbansi
Rajputs in Behar.

Sisodi&i a section of Qo&l&sin
the North-Western Provinces and
Behar.

SisoniA, a sept of Bijputs in
Behar.

8isot&r, a mui or section of
the Chhamulii Madhesid sub-
caste of Halwais in Behar.

Sisungi, fish, a sept of Mun-
das in Chota Nagpur.

Sisutbansi Loharia, a sub-oaste
of the Lohar caste (iron-smith) ;
also called Lohondia.

Sit, a title of Telis in Bengal.

Sitali, a gdin of the S£barna
gotra of B&rendra Brahmans in
Bengal.

Sii&r-Dhob&y a sub-oaste of
Dhobis in Eastern Bengal.

Sithun^, a thar or sept of
Mangars in Darjiling.

Siuli or Setcli , a sub-oaste of
H&ris in Bengal ; a title of Chan-
d&ls, Doms, Haris and similar
lower castes, as well as Maho-
medans who extract juice from
date-trees for the manufacture
of gur , molasses, or toddy.

Siva, a section of the Mah-
mud&b&z sub-oaste of N&pits; of
Jugis and Kap&lis ; of Rauti&s.

Siva-bansi, Sivakul , a syno-
nym for, and a title of, Koohh or
Rijbansi, probably a vague term
for worshippers of Siva, in use
among natives of Kuoh Behar,
many of whom claim to be
Sivabansi, descended from Siva.

Swn&raini , a worshipper of
Siva and Ndrayan, a olass of
religious sectarians who live a
secular life.

Siwarw&r, a sub-caste of
Nuni&s in Behar.

Siy&r, a section of the Par-
gah caste in Behar.

Skandhasura , a synonym for
Kandh.

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SMAR.

255

SONAKANT.

Smdr, Swar, a title of
Ddkshin-Rarhi and Bangaja
Kdyasths.

Smalt i, a sept of Pators in
Chota Nagpur.

Smritiratnai a literary title of
Brahmans.

Soa, a kind of vegetable, a
totemistio sept of Mundas in
Chota Nagpur.

Soai, a bird, a totemistio sept
of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Sodsi, a synonym for Pdn.

Sobarnarekhd, a sept of Mun-
das in Chota Nagpur.

Soberi, a that of the Kausika
gotra of Nepdli Brahmans.

Sobhddih, a mul or seotion
of the Naomulid or Majraut sub-
oaste of Godlds in Behar.

Sobhni Tajpur, a mul or sec-
tion of the Naomulid or Majraut
sub-caste of Goalas in Behar.

Sochari, a seotion of Bdis
Sondrs in Behar.

Sodemba, the spy, a sept of
the Pheddb sub-tribe of limbus
in Darjiling.

Soeka, a bush, a totemistio
sept of Mundas in Chota Nag-
pur.

Soganij a seotion of Saraogis
in Behar.

Sohagrdmi, a gain of the
Kdsyapa gotra of Bdrendra Brah-
mans in Bengal.

Sohanpur, a seotion of the
Biydhut and Khariddhd Kalwdrs
in Behar

Sohek, a kind of fish, a totem-
istio sept of Mundas in Chota
Nagpur.

Sohidamochi, a title of
Chamars or Muohis.

Soil spring, a totemistio sept
of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Sokhait, a sept of the Rautdr
sub-tribe of Thdrus in Behar.

Sokhwd, a sub-caste of Barais
in Behar.

Sokirid* a sub-oaste of Sunris
in Behar.

Sokoe, a kind of fruit, a
totemistio sept of Mundas.

Sokulkdrd, a sub-caste of
Rajwdrs in Chota Nagpur.

Solai, fish, a totemistio sept of
Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Soma, a family title of Kashta
Baidyas and Kayasths in Bengal.

Somdj, a hypergamous divi-
sion of the Pasohim Kuliyd
Sadgops.

Soma I, deer, a sub-sept of the
Kisku sept of Santdls.

Sombansi, a sept of Rdjputs
in Behar.

Somnidih Sagun Mdhta
Purukh, a mul or seotion of the
Naomulid or Majraut sub-oaste
of Godlds in Behar.

Somrishi, a seotion of Maya-
rds in Bengal.

Somwdr, a sept of the Suraj-
bansi division of Rdjputs in
Behar.

Son, a title of Bangaja Kdy-
asths ; a sub-sept of the Beard sept
of Santdls.

Sond, gold, a totemistio seo-
tion of Kurmis in Chota Nagpur
and Orissa ; a totemistio sept of
Godlds in Chota Nagpur who
cannot wear gold.

Sondchain, a section of the
Chain sub-caste of Nunias in
Behar.

Sonaibar, a seotion of Bdbhans
in Behar.

Sondkdnt, a section of the
Biydhut and Khariddhd Kal-
wdrs in Behar.

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SONAMAN.

256

SONAB.

Sonaman, a section of Kanau-
jii Lohdrs in Behar.

Sonamati, a sept of Pdns
in Chota Nagpur.

Sondmdih, a mul or section
of the Naomulid or Majraut sub-
oaste of Godlas in Behar.

Sonaome, a sept of Lohdrs in
Chota Nagpur.

Son&pur Sakarwdr, a mul or
section of the Sdtmulid or Kish-
naut sub-caste of Godlds in Behar.

Sonar, goldsmith, a sept of
Bairdgis and Kharwars in Chota
Nagpur who do not wear gold.

§ OVAx f K&in, Kainyd , Zargar, the goldsmith caste of Behar;

also engaged to some extent in money-lending
Traditions of origin. an( j general trade. Concerning the origin of

the caste little is known, and it appears to be an occupational group
consisting of the members of respectable middle-class castes who
adopted the business of working in the precious metals. Sondrs are
not rich in traditions, and the few they have are of the ordinary
mythological type, and throw no light on the antecedents of the-
caste. A common story is that in the beginning of time, when the
goddess Devi was busy with the construction of mankind, a giant
called Sonwa-Dwaitya, whose body consisted entirely of gold,
devoured her creations as fast as she made them. To baffle this
monster the goddess created a goldsmith, furnished him with the
tools of his art, and instructed him how to proceed. When the
giant proposed to eat him, the goldsmith suggested to him that if his
body were polished his appearanoe would be vastly improved, and
asked to be allowed to undertake the job. With the characteristic
stupidity of his tribe, the giant fell into the trap, and having had
one finger polished was so pleased with the result that he agreed to
be polished all over. For this purpose, like (Eetes in the Greek
legend of Medea, he had to be melted down, and the goldsmith,
who was to get the body as his perquisite, giving the head only to
Devi, took care not to put him together again. The goldsmith,
however, over-reached himself. Not content with his legitimate
earnings, he must needs steal a part of the head, and being
detected in this by Devi, he and his descendants were condemned to

be for ever poor. . . .

The internal structure of the caste 19 shown at length in
Appendix I. Both sub-castes and sections
Internal structure. belong to the local or territorial type, and their

names do not help us to trace a connexion between the Sondrs and
other similar groups. The system of exogamy followed is very
complete. A man may not marry a woman belonging to the same
section as (1) himself, (2) his mother, (3) his paternal grandmother,
(4) his maternal grandmother, (5) his father’s paternal grandmother,
(6) his father’s maternal grandmother. In applying this set of
prohibitions to any particular case, the seotions of both parties are
taken into account ; so that if the proposed bride’s mother belonged
to the same section as the proposed bridegroom’s maternal grand-
mother, no marriage would be possible, although the parties them-
selves both belonged to difEerent sections. The standard formula for

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257

SONAE.

calculating prohibited degrees is also taken into consideration down
to the seventh generation in the descending line.

All Son&rs who can afford to do so marry their daughters as
infants ; and when a girl’s marriage is delayed
amage ’ after the age of puberty, poverty is usually the
sole cause. The marriage oeremony corresponds in all essential
particulars to that observed by the higher castes in Behar. In rioh
families it is considered right for the bridegroom to go on horseback
to fetoh the bride. Polygamy is permitted, but is rarely resorted to
except when the first wife is childless. In the Eanaujid, Ajodhia-
puri, Mair, and Kamarkalla sub-castes widow-marriage is prohibited.
The other sub-castes allow a widow to marry again, and ordinarily
deem it incumbent on her to marry her late husband’s younger
brother. Among the Son&rs of Chota Nagpur the custom of
widow-marriage is reoognized in the devolution of property, whioh
proceeds per stirpes , the shares being so divided that the sons of
a sagai wife get six-sixteenths and those of a bihai wife ten-sixteenths
between them. In Behar the ordinary law of inheritance is followed
by the caste, but a daughter’s son is exoluded from succession by the
nearest male of the same kul or section. The sub-castes which
permit widow- marriage also allow divorce, whioh is effeoted with the
sanction of the panch&yat when a woman is suspeoted of unohastity.

The religion of the Son&r caste differs little from that of other
. orthodox Hindus of about the same standing iu

IgI0n ' society. Some Yaishnavas are found among

them ; but most Sondrs belong to the Sdkta sect, and pay espeoial
reverenoe to Devi. The popular minor gods of Behar are also
worshipped. For the servioe of the di majores of the standard
Hindu Pantheon, Maithil or Tirhutid Brahmans serve them as
priests, and are received on equal terms by other members of the
saored order. In the cult of the minor gods, on the other hand,
traces of a more primitive state of things may perhaps be discerned.
Thus the offerings made to Goraia are the perquisite of the Dosidhs,
which looks as if the priests of the deity were at one time chosen
from that caste ; while the pakwdns or cakes given to Bandi are eaten
by the members of the family. Some Son&rs worship a Mahomedan
pir, Sh&h Sharf-ud-din ; and all offer up silver images of Bandi
at marriages.

The dead are burned, and the standard oeremony of srdddh is
. performed on the thirteenth day after death.

Disposal o e libations for the benefit of ancestors in general

are also presented in the first fortnight of Asm every year.

The social standing of the caste is respectable, and their practice
in the matter of diet does not differ materially
from that of other orthodox Hindus in Behar.
Brahmans take water and sweetmeats from
the caste ; while Sonars themselves are on similar terms with Kewats,
DMnuks, and Godl&s. In former days, it is said, they wore
the sacred thread and abstained from spirituous drinks ; but these
marks of distinction have now fallen into disuse. Their chief
occupations are working in metal, mostly in gold and silver,

Social status and occu-
pation.

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80 NAB.

258

money-ohangmg (aard/i), and khichri-faroshi or dealing in food^grains.
In parts of the oountry where rent is paid in kind on the bhdoli
system, KanaujiA Sondrs usually act as weighmen, and receive an
allowance of a quarter or half a seer to every maund weighed. A
few Sondrs are landholders or cultivators themselves, but as a rule
the connexion of the caste with agriculture is only the indirect one
of lending money to the raiyat.

It is fair to add that the Sondr does not bear a high reputation
for honesty. As a goldsmith he is suspeoted of substituting base
metal for the gold or silver supplied to aim in order to be made up
into ornaments ; as a money-lender he is charged with numberless
devices for extorting money from his olients. A fair idea of the
opinion held of the caste by the agricultural classes may be derived
from the following verses : —

Kainyd dub duhiyd
Suthan le gai Tdgo bhdi
Eh Suthan menminud he dehu
Sab Suthan mangd lehu •

“As he crossed the ford the Kainyd was drowned,

The Bdbhan stole his gold mohars away :

Give one to the Judge, and if justice be found,

You will get all the others within the day.”

The story is that once upon a time a Sondr and a Bdbhan went
forth from the same village to seek their fortunes. Both returned at
the same time and met on the road — the Bdbhan almost penniless
and the Sondr with a bag full of gold mohars. As they were cross-
ing a river, the Bdbhan decided to drown the Sondr and steal his
money. The latter gave himself up to his fate, only asking his
murderer to repeat the foregoing verses as his last message to his
kinsfolk. The stupid Bdbhan did so, and thus himself furnished the
clue which led to the detection of the crime. The story affords
a curious illustration of the popular estimate of the comparative
intellectual capacity of the castes concerned. A somewhat similar
tale, in whioh a Kdyasth plays the part here assigned to the Sondr,
is quoted in the article on GhdsL

The following statement shows the number and distribution of
Sondrs in 1872 and 1881. In certain cases the figures of Sekrds
and Subarnabaniks seem to have been inoluded in the Census
Beports.

District.

1872.

1881.

District.

1872.

1881.

Birbhum -

Nadiya

Dina] pur

Bangpur

Pabna

Darjiling

Kuch Behar

Chittagong Hill Tracts ...

Patna

Gya

Shahabad

® w *‘{£SES r :::

Saran

Ctiampnran

21,101

16,258

14,997

} H720.
20,167
11,288

715

186

605

23,278
15,809
18,139
< 23,899
l 16,988
21,472
15,037

Monghyr

Bh&galpur ...

Purnian

Maldah

Santa! Pargan&a

Cuttack

Puri

Balaaore

Tributary States

H&zaribagh

Lohardagi

8ingbhum

Manbhum ... ». ...

Tributary States

13,348

9,646

9,419

8,758

13,987

6,990

4,297

4,670

4,352

3,302

176

1,812

1,290

18,167

16,917

8,000

4,281

117

832

671

457

i6,822

4,495

251

2,553

1,304

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SO NKR.

259

SONPUEYX.

8onir, a synonyn for Sarna-
kir or goldsmiths.

Sondrbanid , a synonym for
Subarnabanik.

. Sonirekhi, a sub-caste of
Koras in Chota Nagpur.

Sonarwa, a bird, a totem-
istio sept of Mundas in Ohota
Nagpur.

Sonarwar, gold, a sept of
Kharwars in Ohota Nagpur.

Sonaul, a mul or section of
Kasarwini Baniyis in Behar.

Sonbesra, a bird, a totemistio
sept of Lohirs in Chota Nagpur.

Sonbhadrii, a seotion of
Babhans in Behar, so named
after the village Sonbhadra ; or
who live on the banks of the
Son river.

Soncheri, a section of Kanau-
jii Sonars in Behar.

Sone, a totemistio sept of
Mundas in Chota Nagpur who
cannot wear gold.

Sonechaurupeked&ndi, a mul
or section of Kasarwini Baniyis
in Behar.

Sonerupekhfchri, a mul or
section of Kasarwini Baniyis in
Behar.

Sonew&r, a kul or section of
Babhans in Behar.

Songbangphe, the new settler,
a sept of the Pinthar and Phedib
sub-tribes of Limbus in Dar-
jiling.

Songden, a section of Mur-
mis in Darj'iling.

Songyokpa, a sept of the
Phigu sub-tribe of Yakhas in
Darjiling.

Sonhar v a mul or section of
the Chhamulii Madhesia sub-
caste of Halwiis and of Biyahut
and Kharidahi Kalwirs in Behar.

Soni, a section of the Bira-

J ’iti sub-caste of Khatris in
Bengal ; a seotion of Oswiis and
Saraogis in Behar.

Soniyir, a pur or seotion of
8ikadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Sonkhare, a section of Kiy-
asths in Behar.

Sonkharihan, a place of
worship before cutting grain, a
totemistio sept of Mundas in
Chota Nagpur.

Sonkhariki, a sept of Pins
in Chota Nagpur.

Sonkoka, a sept of Pins in
Chota Nagpur.

Son Maghaia, a sept of Lo-
hirs and Mundas in Chota Nag-
pur.

Sonmain, a section of Ma-
ghaiyi Kumhirs in Behar.

Sonmanik, a sept of Chiks in
Chota Nagpur.

Sonoir, gold, a sept of Aga-
riis in Chota Nagpur.

Sono&ti, a sub-caste of Ghisis
in Chota Nagpur.

Sonpur, a section of the Tir-
hutiyi sub-oaste of Dorns in
Behar.

Sonpuri, a sub-seot of Vaish-
navas.

Sonpurii, a section of Lohirs
and Sonirs in Behar.

Sonpursa, a section of the
Dhusia sub-caste of Chamirs in
Behar.

Sonpuryi, a section of the
Pachainyi sub-caste of Dorns in
Behar.

r 2

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SON TIBKI.

260

SBIKRISHNA.

Son Tirki, a sept of Loh&rs
and a seotion of Gordits in Chota
Nagpur.

Sonwan, a seotion of Ghdsis
in Chota Nagpur.

Sonwan i, a totemiatio sept of
Godlds, Nagesars, who cannot
wear gold ; a seotion of Cheros in
Chota Nagpur.

Somodr , a synonym for Sunu-
wdr.

Sonwasi, a sept of Chits in
Chota Nagpur.

Sonyokpa, the guardian of
the new fort, a sept of Chaibisa
sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

So-onkobu, a resident of
So-onko, a sept of the Pheddb
sub-tribe of Limbus in Daijii-
ing.

Sorahaiyd , a synonym for
Surahiyd.

Soraiyd, a seotion of Kanaujia
Brahmans.

Soranid, a seotion of Cheros
in Paldmau.

Sorawdr, a seotion of Bdbhans
in Behar.

Soriydr, a pur or seotion of
Sdkadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Soso bheloa, a fruit, a totem-
istio sept of Mundas in Chota
Nagpur.

Sote, Srotriya, a hypergam-
ous group of Maithil Brahmans
in Behar.

Sothdngeh, a thar or sept of
Khambus in Darjiling.

Sothiwdr, a seotion of Lohdrs
in Behar.

Sothung, name of a village,
a sept of the Phedab sub-tribe of
limbus in Darjiling.

Soti, a thar or section of
Nepdli Brahmans.

Sotri, a title of Bdbhans in
Behar.

Sowdni, a seotion of Mahesris
in Behar.

Sparshan, a title of Muchis in
Bengal.

Spashta Ddya a, a sect of
Vaishnavas, said to have been
founded by one Rup Rdm Kahi-
li j, adhoipleof Krishna Chandra
Chakravartti of Saiddbdd.

Sravak , literally, a hearer ; (i)
a lay member of the Jain religion ;
(iij a Hinduised branch of Jains
in Manbhum who appear to have
lost their religion and become
an ordinary caste.

Sravaka , a synonym for Sdrdk.

Sratcak , a synonym for Sdrdk.

Sreshta-Khandait, a sub-
oaste of Khanddits in the Orissa
Tributary States.

Srestikaran, (i) a title of
traders generally ; (ii) a title of
the Madhyasreni Brahmans of
Midnapur.

Sri, a sub-caste of Sutradhars
in Noakhdli.

Sriangabhatti, a m^orhyper-
gamous sub-group of Rarhi
Brahmans in Bengal.

Sribakarid, a seotion of Gonds
in Chota Nagpur.

Sribarddhani, a mel orhyper-
gamous sub-group of Rdrhi
Brahmans in Bengal.

Sribastab or Bwdar , a sub-
caste of Hajjams and Kiyasths
in Behar.

Sri bit id, a seotion of Madhesid
Kdndus in Behar.

Sri-Gaura, a sub-oaste of
Gaura Brahmans.

Srikrishna, a sub-oaste of
Butradhars in Noakhdli.

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SBIMAL.

261

SUBARNABANIK.

Srimal, a section of OswAls
in Behar.

Srimaurh&, a section of the
Banodbia and JaiswAr Kalw&rs
in Behar.

Sringa, a gain of the Bharad-
w&ja gotra of B&rendra Brahmans
in Bengal.

Sringi, a gdin of the Sdbama
gotra of B&rendra Brahmans in
Bengal.

Srip&li, a thar or sept of Man-
gars in Darjiling.

Srisampad, a title of Brah-
mans.

Srishti-Karan, Bhatuntara,
a sub-caste of Karans in Orissa.

Srisrimal, a seotion of Osw&ls
in Behar.

Srotriya 9 a hypergamous
division of the EArhi and
B&rendra Brahmans in Bengal.

Srotriya or S4sani, a sub-
caste of Utkal Brahmans in Orissa.

Srotriya, Sote, a hypergam-
ous class of Maithil Brahmans
in Behar.

Srutabati, a gain of the
B&tsya gotra of B&rendra Brah-
mans in Bengal.

Ssahoden, bom in famine
time, a sept of the Tambrkhola
sub-tribe of limbus in Darjiling.

Sser-Gomba, a rut or sept of
Sherpa Bhotias of Nepal.

Sser-Lungchan, a mi or sept
of Sherpa Bhotias of Nepal.

Sserpa, a mi or sept of Sherpa
Bhotias of Nepal.

Sser-Phen-Zangnd, a mi or
sept of Sherpa Bhotias of Nepal.

Su&, a seotion of GoAl&s in
Behar.

Suar, hog, a totemistio sept of
Oraons ; a seotion of Kah&rs.

Suarait, a section of Bh&ts.

Suargane, a section of Ba-
bhans in Behar.

Subansi, a sept of Chandra-
bansi Bijputs in Behar.

Subarna, a gdin of the
S&ndilya gotra of B&rendra
Brahmans in Bengal.

§ttb&mdmnik, Banid, Baniif Sarnabanik , Sondrbanid , a
mercantile caste of Bengal Proper, who claim
Traditions of origin. to ^ the modern representatives of the ancient

Vaisya. In spite of the wealth and influence of the Subamabanik,
their high-bred appearanoe, and the notorious beauty of the women
of the caste, their claim to thin distinguished anoestry has failed to
obtain general recognition. Hey are excluded from the ranks of
the Nabas&kha, or nine dean Sudra castes, and none but Vaidik
Brahmans will take water from their hands. To acoount for the
comparatively low status assigned to them the Subaroabaniks
narrate a variety of traditions, some of which, however unsupported
by historical evidence, deserve to be briefly mentioned here as
illustrations of the kind of stories which would tend to grow up
wherever the business talents and practical ability of a particular
community advance it in the eyes of the world conspicuously
beyond its rank in the theoretical order of castes. The Subar-
nabaniks say that their ancestors came to Bengal from Oudh
during the reign of Adisura, who was struck by their financial
ability and oonferred on them the title of Subamabanik, or trader
in gold, as a mark of his favour. They then wore the Brahmamoal

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SUBABNABANIK.

262

thread, studied the Vedas, and were generally recognized as Vaisyas
of high rank. The stories of their degradation all centre round the
name of BalUl Sen, king of Bengal in 1070 (A.D.) His intrigue
with a beautiful Pdtni girl is said to have been ridiculed on the stage
by some young men of the caste, while the Subamabaniks in a
body refused to be present at the penance whereby the king
affected to purify himself from the sin of intercourse with a
maiden of low oaste. Another cause of offenoe is said to have been
the refusal of a leading Subamabanik to lend Ball&l large sums of
money to oarry on a war with Manipur. Authorities differ con-
cerning the method by whioh the king obtained his revenge.
Some say that in the oourse of the penance already referred to a
number of small golden calves had been distributed to the attend-
ant Brahmans. One of these Brahmans was suborned by Ballal
Sen to fill the hollow inside of a calf with lac-dye, and to take
the figure to a Subarnabanik for sale. In testing the gold the
Subamabanik let out the lac-dye, whioh was at once pronounced
to be blood. Having thus fastened upon the caste the inexpiable
guilt of killing a oow, Ball&l Sen publicly deolared them and
their Brahmans to be degraded, deprived them of the right to wear
the sacred thread, and threatened with similar degradation any
one who should eat or associate with them. Up to this time
Subamagram, near Dacoa, had been the head-quarters of the caste
in Bengal. Many had settled at Puri, in Orissa, beyond the
jurisdiction of BaU&l Sen, while others went to Gour in attendance
on Lakhsman Sen.

In default of independent testimony to the aoouraoy of this
tradition I do not see how it can be regarded as a narrative of
historical events. It is no doubt conceivable that a despotio
monarch might order the sooial degradation of a particular class of
his subjects provided that it were not too numerous or too influential ;
and it is generally believed that Balldl Sen did effeot some changes
of this kind in the relative status of certain families of Brahmans.
Notwithstanding this, the story of the depression of an entire caste
from a very high to a comparatively low rank in the social system
makes a very large demand on our belief, and inclines one to suspect
that it may have been evolved in recent times to account for the
position aotually occupied by the caste being lower than that to whioh
their riches and ability would entitle them to lay claim. From this

g int of view, Dr. Wise’s conjeoture that the Subamabaiiiks are
industani Baniy&s who lost rank by residing in Bengal seems to
deserve some consideration.

According to Dr. Wise the Subamabaniks of Eastern Bengal

Ti ^ reoognize four sub-oastes — Banga, Dakhin-

Internal structure. R ^ f> Uttar _ R £ rhf> and Saptagrdmi Or

Nadiyd. The Banga “ claim to be descendants of Sonars resident
in Bengal during the reign of Balldl Sen, and are undoubtedly the
oldest branch of the famuy. Two 8renis are met with, Kulina and
Varendra, or Maulika, inferior, whioh never intermarry. Every
Maulika, however, asserts that he is a Kulina, and village Sondrs,
by assuming similar claims, cause endless squabbles and feuds.

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Ward distinguishes between the Sauvama-k£r and the Sauvarnabanik ;
the former being goldsmiths, the latter money-changers. It
is remarkable that members of the Banga engaging in the caste
profession of goldsmiths are styled Sankara, or mixed, baniks, and
exoommunicated from the society of their brethren. In the oity of
Dacca about forty families reside, twenty-five of whom belong to the
pure town stock and fifteen to the Cr&mf, or rural. These two
branches are still further sundered by having two distinct dais, or
unions.

The Bangas have three gotras — K&syapa, Gautama, and Yyisa.

“ Padavi,” or titles,

are —

Sena.

Bordl.

pa.

Dhar.

Maulika.

Sinha.

Datta.

Laha.

Addi.

D4.

Chanda.

The marriage ceremonies are copied from those observed at the
wedding of §rf Rdmaohandra and §ita, while in Western Bengal
the marriage servioe is that of Mahddeva and Pdrvaii. At the
former the bridal pair, seated on stools, are carried round the oourt ;
at the latter the bridegroom stands while the bride is borne round
him. The bride wears a red dress, as well as a lofty diadem
(mukuta) with a red turban, from whioh tinsel pendants hang.
The bridal attire beoomes the perquisite of the barber ; the dress
worn on the second day falls to the Ghataka.

The “ Pradh&n,” or president of the caste assembly, is always
a Kulina. The Kulina sometimes marries a Maulika girl when her
dowry is large, but this allianoe does not exalt her family.

The Banga Son&rs are jewellers, but as a rule do not manu-
facture ornaments. They are often bankers, traders, and shop-keepers.
The poorer class acoept employment as writers, but would sooner
starve than cultivate the soil. The large majority are Yaishnavas,
but a few follow the Tantrio ritual.

In the city of Dacca reside about seventy families of the
Dakhin-R&rhl sub-caste, who originally sought shelter in Eastern
Bengal, along with the Uttar- Rarhi and Nadiy& Son&rs, from the
Marhatta invasion of 1741. Among them rage interminable disputes
about precedence, and the confusion is increased by the Padavis
beingtne same as those of the Banga.

The houses of Nfldmbara Datta and Potirdj D6 are reokoned the
first of Kulinas, and next, but at a great interval, are the children of
two brothers, Chanda and Madhu, who are 811s, and reside at
Balgonah, in Burdwan. Families with the titles of Bor&l, Laha,
Chand, and Addi are deemed more aristocratic than the Maulika.

The gotras of this division are —

Madhu Kuly6. S&ndilya.

K&syapa. Bavaria.

Gautama. Bharadwaja.

As a general rule the Dakhin-Birhi do not intermarry with the
Uttar-R&rm, but take piri 9 or cake, from them, and even cooked
food, if on friendly terms. The daughter of a Kulina marrying

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a Maulika bridegroom sinks to bis level, but the daughter of a Maulika
marrying a Kubua is raised to his. Dakhin-Rdrhl women dress like
other Hindu females of Eastern Bengal ; the Uttar-Rdrhl as women
of Bard wan and Hughli.

The Dakhin-B&rhi worship Lakshmi daily, when rice, sugar,
and flowers are offered, and no woman will touch food until this
duty is performed. The “ goddess of wealth ” is also worshipped
with especial honour four times every year.

The members of this subdivision are usually employed as
writers.

Many peculiarities of their earlier home in Western Bengal
are retained by the Uttar-Rdrhl subdivision. The women still
speak the Burdwan “ fihdshd,” or dialect, and their dress is that
of Central Bengal. The gotras are many, and the following are
the most important : —

Madhu Kulyd.

Bdijdilya.

Barbara.

Ndga-Rishi.

Aliman.

Kasyapa*
Bharadwdja.
Brahma Rishi.
Gautama.
Savarna.

The titles are the same as those of other Sondrs, but they have
no Maulika. Their president is styled “ Mfirdhanya,” a Sanskrit
word for highest.

The Uttar-Rdrhl still prepares the marriage space, called
Marooha, whioh has been given up by the Dakhin-Rdrhl, and the
bride wears the lofty diadem and appendages of the Banga.

In Daooa there are about seventy families, the men being
employed as clerks, acoountants, and bankers. Only four annual
festivals in honour of Lakshmi are kept, that on the Dlwdll being
omitted. Manasd Devi is propitiated with great ceremony, and
on the Bhaglratha Dashard a branoh of “ J$lj ” ( Euphorbia UguUrxa ),
saored to the “ goddess of snakes,” is planted in the oourtyard, and
on every Panchami, or fifth lunar day of eaoh fortnight up to the
Dashard of the Durgd Pfijah, the Sondrs make offerings to it.
On the great day of the feast, the Yijaya Dasaml, the plant is
pluoked up and thrown into the river.

The Saptagrdmi or Nadiyd subdivision constitutes a small body,
numbering some thirty-five households. Driven from their former
homes by the Marhattas, they crossed the Ganges and settled in
Daooa.

The prinoipal gotras are —

Madhu Kuliyd. Savarna.

Ndga-Rishi. §hra-$ri.

§d^dilya.

The patronymios are Sll, Bordl, Pdl, Sena, Maulika, Dd, Harf,
Priya Dds, and Karana Vari Dds.

Being a small community, the Nadiyd Sondrs intermarry with
the Dakhin and Uttar-Rdrhl, and easily obtain wives by giving
a large dowry.

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SUBABNABANIK.

While the TAk-sal, or Mint, was open at Dacca, the NadiyA
SonArs worked as Son-dhoas , gold-washers, or NiyAriyAs, infusing
and purifying metals, but since its closure they have worked as Son-
dhoas on their own account. The dust and refuse (gad) of gold-
smiths’ shops are bought for a sum varying from eight annas to five
rupees a ser, according to the amount or nature of the business.
The refuse being carefully washed, the metallic particles in the
sediment are transferred to shalluw earthen pans, and the larger
separated by a skilled workman, or Kdrigar. The smaller, mixed
with cow-dung and a calx of lead, form a ball named pindi or perd.
This ball being placed in a hole partially filled with eharooal, fire is
applied, and as the lead melts it carries with it all gold and silver
filings, forming a mass oalled Una. This lind is then dissolved in a
orucible, and the gold and silver, being unmelted, are easily separated.”

Dr. Wise’s interesting information regarding the Subarnabaniks
was collected by him nearly twenty years ago from members of
the caste residing in the city of Dacca. Sinoe that time a tendency
towards the amalgamation of sub-oastes seems to have set in. The
Subarnabaniks of the present day do not seem to lay muoh stress
on the distinction between the Uttar- RArhl and Dakhin-RArhi
groups, and sometimes include both under the designation RArhl.
Members of the RAyhl sub-caste may, as is mentioned by Dr. Wise,
marry into the SaptagrAmi or NadiyA sub-caste, subject only to
the condition that tne titles or family names of the parties shall not
be the same.

Subarnabaniks marry their daughters as infants, and observe the
. standard marriage ceremony in vogue among

amage * the higher classes of Hindus. Betrothal, ndndi
srdddho — performed on the forenoon of the day of gift, and the
formal gift of the bride on the same night, are the essential features
of the ceremony.

The rules regarding the avoidance of marriage within the gotra
or section, and the practice in the matter of prohibited degrees, are
the same as are followed by the higher castes. Polygamy is per-
missible, but is rarely resorted to except in the event of failure of
offspring by the first wife. Widow-marriage and divorce are under
no circumstances allowed.

The great majority of the caste belong to the Yaishnava sect
. of Hindus. RAdhA, Krishna, and Chaitanya,

Kellgl0IL the modem inoamation of the latter, are their

favourite objeots of worship. RAdhA, the favourite mistress of
Krishna, is in their view identical with Lakshmi, and a grain-
measure (katd, kunkiy or khunchi) filled with paddy and shells, and
daubed with vermilion, is worshipped daily as her emblem by the
females of the family. In Central Bengal the goddess of learning,
Bageswari, is also worshipped on the day following a marriage. For
religious and ceremonial purposes the Subarnabaniks employ Brah-
mans of their own, who are not reoeived on equal terms by other
members of the sacred order. They olaim nevertheless to be the
descendants of oertain Vaidik Brahmans of the highest learning and
sanctity, who were opposed to the policy of BallAl Sen and elected to

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SUBHA.

Social status and occu-
pation.

follow the fortunes of the Subarnabaniks even at the cost of sharing
in their degradation.

The caste burn their dead and perform the ceremony of srdddh
in the orthodox fashion on the thirty-first day.

8posa 0 e ** * The obsequies of persons who die a violent
death are performed on the fourth day.

The social status of the oaste, according to the recognized scale
of precedence, is comparatively low. They
rank below the Navasakha, and the Brahmans
who serve the higher castes will not take water
from their hands. There seems nevertheless to be a tolerably
widespread feeling that the standing allotted to them by tradition
is ludiorously incompatible with their wealth and abilities, and
with the aptitude which they have shown of late years for taking
advantage of English education. Trade has always been their chief
function, and it was as suooessful merchants that the families of
Sil, Mallik, and Laha first won for themselves a place among the
leading citizens of Calcutta. In the present generation Subarnabaniks
have come to the front as officials, and have attained some literary
distinction. They number among their community a District
Judge, an Inspector of Schools, four Subordinate Judges, five Deputy*
Magistrates, and fifteen Munsifs. The Revd. Lai Behan Dey is
well known in Bengal as the author of the clever genre novel Govinda
Sdmanta , while Babu Bholanath Chandra’s Travels of a Hindu has
certain quaint merits of its own whioh seem likely to keep its memory
alive.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of
Subarnabaniks in 1872 and 1881. In certain districts the figures of
Sekr&s and Son&rs seem to have been included in the Census
Report of 1872: —

District.

1872.

1881.

District.

1872.

1881.

Bardwan

Bankura

Birbhum

Midnapur

Hughli

Howrah

24-ParganAs

Nadiya

Khulna

Jessore

Murshedabad

Dinajpur

Rajshahye ...

Rangpur

BOftl'fc ••• »m •••

Pabna

Darjiling

Jalpigori

Kuoh Behar

18,818

5.268

5.202

11.489

} 8,887

27,0X5

6,628

6,929

5,342

888

809

414

400

947

4,754
6,683
8,467
7,788
C 5,511
l 2,464
2,370
8,700
2,799
8,078
3,280
27
815
299
150
93

**’”679

128

Dacca

Faridpnr

Bakarganj

Mnimansmh ...

Tipperah

Chittagong

Noakhali

Chittagong Hill Tracts ...

Maldah

Sant&l Pargan&s „.

Hazaribagh

Lohardagd

Manbhom

Singbhum

Cuttack

Puri

Balaaore

Tributary States

4.690

2,380

2,144

8,100

1,841

6,165

1,190

‘*’*440

1,778

2,736

6,486

238

13,987

6,990

4,297

4,670

3,965

2,843

1,458

3,622

2,046

4,446

1,570

196

1,541

7,726

10,897

4,190

5,209

715

Subamabisayi, a sub-caste of
Telis in Bengal.

Subarni4-panchbh&, a section
of Babhans in Chota Nagpur.

Suberi, a thar of the Bharad-
w&j a gotra of Nep&li Brahmans.

Subha or Suffah (chief), a
title of Limbus in Darjiling.

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267

SUDHX.

Subhar&jkh&ni, a mel or
hyporgamoufl sub-group of Rdrhi
Brahmans in Bengal.

Suchait, a section of Oswdl
Baniyds.

| Such&rit a mul or section of
Son&rs in Behar.

§ttbh£, a small caste of Orissa, who believe their original occu-
pation to have been personal service, but are now for the most part
engaged in cultivation. In the census of 1872 they appear to have
been reoorded under the name of Amdyat or Arndt, which is one of
their titles, and which, taken in connexion with their traditions of
occupation, rather goes to suggest some affinity between them and
the Amats of Behar. Sudhas are divided into four sub-castes : —
Bara-8udhd, Sdno or Kabdtkonia Sudha, Paila-Sudhd, and Butka-
Sudhd. Concerning their exogamous groups my information is
incomplete. The Bara-Sudhd profess to have gotras and to observe
the rule that a man may not marry a woman of his own gotra.
But I have not been able to ascertain the names of the gotras .

The most primitive of the three sub-castes regarding which
tolerably full data are available appears to be the Butkd-Sudhd.
They are a nomadic raoe, who believe themselves to have immigrated
into Orissa from Rerdkhol in the Central Provinces. They wander
about reclaiming waste lands and tapping date and palm-trees for
their juice. Having found a suitable spot for their operations, they
build small huts of mats, bamboos, and any light materials that are
available and settle down for two or three years, deserting the place
and seeking a fresh locality as soon as the soil shows signs of beoom-
h)g exhausted. Marriage is adult, and courtship is a reoognized
preliminary ; but after the parents have given their consent to an
engagement it is not etiquette for the young people to meet until the
marriage is celebrated. The marriage oeremony is simple. The
parties sit side by side before a bedi, or elevated platform of earth,
the bridegroom having the bride on his right. The headman
(Beherd) of the caste ties their right hands together with a pieoe of
string, which is afterwards untied or cut by the brother-in-law of
the bridegroom, or the younger sister of the bride, who receives a
piece of cloth from the bridegroom for doing him this service. Then
some old women — not less than three or more than seven — sprinkle
atap rioe and turmeric powder over the couple and give them their
bless ing .

Widows may marry again. No regular ceremony is performed.
The headman of the caste and the woman’s relatives take her to her
new husband’s house and make her over to him. A feast is given
to the caste if the bridegroom can afford it. Divoroe is permitted
with the sanction of the caste panohdyat, and divorced women are
permitted to marry again in the same manner and by the same
form as widows.

The regular Hindu deities seem to be unknown to the caste.
They worship a goddess, called Pancha-Khanda (five swords), with
offerings of he-goats, fowls and rice, which are partaken of by the
worshippers. The full moon of the month of Aghran is the proper
time for this sacrifice. The Beherd or headman of the caste officiates

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SUDBA.

as priest at this and all other acts of public worship. The ButkA-
SudhAs have no Brahmans. The dead are burned and the ashes left
on the spot. No srAddh ceremony is performed. The caste abstain
from beef, but eat the wild buffalo, the wild boar, and domestic
fowls.

The Bara and SAno-SudhA sub-castes have travelled further
than the Butki on the road towards orthodox Hinduism. The first-
mentioned group have entirely adopted infant marriage, while the
SAno, though still permitting adult marriage, regard infant marriage
as the standard to which all respectable people should endeavour to
conform. Widow remarriage, however, still holds its ground. A
number of women headed by the barber’s wife give the widow their
blessing along with some atap rice and duba grass, and a priest
mutters a few mantras. Divorced women may marry again.

For the service of the regular Hindu gods, the oelebration of
srdddh , and the like, Brahmans are employed, who are received on
equal terms by other members of the sacred order The goddess
Khamheswar, a divinity of a more primitive type, having her ohief
seat in the wild oountry of Bod, is worshipped every year in the
month of Bhadra with sacrifices of goats. The goddess is represented
by a wooden peg (khamba) fixed in the ground, and the Brahmans
take no part in her worship, which is conducted by a Dehuri or
tribal priest supposed to be specially acquainted with the way of
the local gods.

Bara-SudhAs believe military or personal service to have been their
original oooupation. Some of them hold service-tenures under the
Chiefs of the Orissa Tributary Mahals, and the faot that they bear
the title Paik seems to show that they must have formed part of the
rude militia whioh onoe existed in that part of the oountry. The
SAno-ttudhA believe that their original profession was the cultivation
and management of date and palm-trees, and regard the katdri or
pruning knife as their characteristic implement. The social status
of both groups is considerably higher than that of the ButkA SudhA,
who can hardly be reokoned as ooming within the pale of Hinduism
at all. The higher caste of Orissa Brahmans, Chhatris, Karans and
Goalas take water and sweetmeats from the hands of the Bara and
SAno-SudhAs, but the BhandAris or barbers alone will receive boiled
rioe from them.

bra, the lowest and servile caste in the fourfold grouping
0rf . adopted by early Indian writers, and, in theory

UTlgUL at least, more or less reoognized by the Natives

of India at the present day. The opinion has been expressed by
Lassen* and concurred in by Zimmer* that the name Sudra is
not of Sanskrit origin, but was probably the tribal designation of
one of the ohief aboriginal raoes of Hindustan who adopted the
Aryan faith and were admitted as servile members of the Aryan
polity. Tribes who followed the example of the Sudras were natur-
ally enrolled in the same class, and thus came to be called by the same

1 Ind. Alt i, 947.

2 Alt. Ind. Leben , 216.

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SUDBA.

name. Weber, on the other hand, thinks that the Sudra oaste “ was
composed of various mixed elements, partly, perhaps, of an Aryan
race which had settled earlier in India, partly of the aborigines
themselves, and partly, again, of those among the immigrants, or
their Western kinsmen, who refused adherence to the new Brah-
manioal order.” It would be foreign to the purpose of this book to
enter upon a lengthy examination of the position of the Sudra in
relation to the other three castes of the Manavic system, or to
discuss the vexed question how far the precepts of the M&nava-
dharma-sfistra were at any time in correspondence with the facts of
actual life. The following extract from Mr. E. W. Hopkins’ work
on the subject sums up the main features of the social status of the
Sudra as represented by Manu : —

“ The Sudra, onoe-bora, is to be regarded in two lights — the one
as general representative of his caste, irrespective of his master, where
he is the abject slave of the twice-born, whose touoh is unholy, in
whose presence the Brahman may not remain, contact with whom is
as polluting as with the lowest wretches and outcasts ; on the other
hand, as the settled servant of one master in whose house he is
perhaps born, where his position is by no means so ignoble, though
the fact of his slavery and lowness cannot be done away with. The
personal contact with the Brahman is here greatly eased of the strict
abhorrence with which the dwija is bound in general to regard the
Sudra caste. As a servant his position is not in many respects
different from the, indeed, not comfortable, because dependent and
servile, yet still endurable and not very severe, position of an
American house-slave prior to 1860. It is true that the Sudra has no
mercy to expeot on insulting his betters, and torture and death may
be the oonsequenoe ; but so long as he retains a respeotf ul demeanour
towards the upper castes, he is tolerably secure from danger. His
master may give him advice, and bestow on him suoh old furniture
and goods as are no longer fitted for the Brahman himself. He has
his family, and his wife is as carefully guarded from freedom with
other castes as the wives of the upper orders. His daughter or wife, if
wronged by the upper castes, have the right of law, and a heavy fine
is visited upon the offender. His master has, indeed, the rignt of
punishing him, but only, as in the case of son and wife, for his own
good. The striking is, moreover, limited in kind, and the fact that
he may not be smitten upon the back shows that even he had an
honourable part of the body. 1 He may not study, nor hear the
Vedas recited, but he may be present at the small family sacrifices and
religious oeremonies, and is indeed even praised for so doing. His
legal privileges are few, but his rights are granted him with the other
castes. He has the right of demanding redress for an injury of
personal character even from the Brahman himself. He is held
separate from the very lowest, the mixed castes, and should hold
himself from their occupations till driven thereto by want. He
represents his master in occasional business matters. As a matter

1 In the last two particulars he stood, indeed, upon a higher level than
the Negro !— E. W. H.

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SUDBA.

270

of principle he can have himself no property, as all belongs to his
master, but practically he is a householder and receives a support
suited to his need, and has property returned him if it is stolen. He
is enjoined not to acquire very much, but evidently often managed
to do so ; and if his property in the eye of the law is dependent on
the whim of the Brahman, it is at least in respect to other castes
not regarded as a fiction. The rights of the Sudra are generally on
a graded scale in respect to the other castes, and here no distinction
is made between family-slave and general Sudra . 1 Distinct mention
of Sudra as teacher wnen others fail, and the possibility of his being
a king, show that he sometimes gained a position superior to the
one he generally occupies .” 2

The modem use of the term Sudra is not easy to define. “ In
the present time,” says Mr. Beames , 3 “ there are no Sudras and no
Vaisyas ; no Kshatriyas except the BA j put : only the Brahman is
recognizable. The lower castes fused more readily than the higher,
and the Sudras probably were soon absorbed in the mixed olasses,
and ceased to have any distinct existence as Sudras.” A Native
writer 4 dealing with the same subject takes muoh the same view
as Mr. Beames, admitting that the Kshatriyas are represented by
the RAjputs, while in Bengal, at any rate, the Vaisyas have fallen
to the rank of Sudras. The Sudras, again, he divides into the four
following classes : —

i. Satsudra, including the KAyaeths and the NabasAkh.

ii. ualdcharaniya Sudra, being those castes not technically

belonging to the NabasAkh group from whom Brahmans

and members of the higher castes can take water.

iii. Jalabyahah&rya Sudra, castes from whose hands a

Brahman cannot take water.

iv. Asprishya Sudra, castes whose touch is so impure as to

pollute even Ganges water.

Here it seems to me that in the attempt to reconcile the
existing state of things with the traditional system, and at any cost
to unearth the survivors of the fourth caste, the author quoted has
given to the term Sudra a wider significance than is warranted
by popular usage. It may of course be argued that the scheme
propounded by Manu treats all men who are not twice-born as
Budras, and that the same principle, if applied at the present day,
requires us to inolude every caste below the RAjput in that category.

1 How far the legal arrangements of fines in personal injuries, etc., con-
tained in Manu were regarded as matters of fact and had a practical working,
and how far they were held as legal fiction resulting from a desire to adjust
and systematise the relations of all four castes before the law with arith*
metical exactness, cannot be my purpose to determine. That Yajna-
vijkya, however, as a rule follows the arrangement of Manu, and settles such
ca&es also according to higher or lower rank, so well by stated amounts as by
general determination, shows the relative worth of these laws was as valid with
him as with Manu.

1 The Mutual Relations of the Four Castes according to the Mdnava-
dhama Cdstram, Leipzig, 1881.

* The Races of the North-Western Provinces , vol. i, p. 167.

4 Bambandhanirnaya. By Lai Mohan VidyAnidhi, p. 89 if.

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SUDBA.

8till I do not believe that the oastes olassed as Asprishya would
be spoken of by any Hindu as Sudras at all, though the members of
any particular group might possibly in a vague kind of way claim
that title for themselves. At the other end of the scale the classi-
fication is equally open to criticism. No plaoe is assigned to the
Baidyas, Khatris, and Bh&ts ; while the K&yasths, though not tech-
nically twioe-bom, invariably claim to rank above the Nabas&kh,
and by virtue of their wealth and intelligence ocoupy a position
which fully bears out their claim.

Failing, then, any classical and authoritative definition, we have
only to consider what is ordinarily understood by the term. Both
in Bengal and Behar I think it is commonly used to denote the
entire group of castes from whose hands a Brahman can take water.
K&yasths, Baidyas, Bh&ts, and Khatris are not generally spoken of
or regarded as Sudras, though persons of a pedantic turn of mind,
who are bent on finding survivals of the original fourfold division,
would probably set down both K&yasths and Baidyas as tech-
nically Sudras. In Orissa the definition by water offered above seems
to hold good in the main, but the Karan, or writer caste, does not
hold so high a status as the K&yasths of Bengal, and ranks as a
Sudra in popular estimation.

Although in most parts of the country the term Sudra is not

T . . . strictly speaking a caste-name at all, but rather

a general designation of a oertain number of
castes, there appears to exist in the eastern districts of Bengal a
numerous body of people who oall themselves and are also

known by the names of Ghul&m (slave), K&yasth, Shikd&r, and
Bhand&ri. They form a distinct caste, and as a rule marry only
among themselves, though in Maimansinh and Sylhet they marry
women of the Sunri oaste, and even bestow their own daughters on
Sunri bridegrooms. In the latter oase the girl forfeits her caste, but
her family are not held to be degraded. The origin of the Sudras
is obscure, and some say that they are descended from individuals
belonging to the Sat-Sudra group, who sold themselves or were sold
as slaves to Kdyasth masters, and thus, by discharging the same
functions as were assigned to the anoient Sudras, came to be called
by the same name. The following deed of sale, given to Dr. Wise
by Babu Brijo Sundar Mittra, a member of one of the oldest and
most respected K&yasth families of Dacca, is quoted in illustration
of this view : —

“ I, Rdm Kisto Pdl, son of Tdla Rdm Pdl, and grandson of lUm
Deva P41, do hereby execute this deed of sale : —

“ Owing to the debts incurred at my marriage, and which I am
unable to pay, I, in my proper mind, and of my own free will, sell
myself to you on my receiving a sum of Piiro j onodohomasi 1 rupees
twenty-five, and I and my descendants will serve you as slaves as long
as we are given subsistence allowance and clothing. You, your sons,

1 Mr. J. D. Ward, C.S., suggests the following reading and interpret-
ation : — Ptira (full), jana, or gana, dah4 (ten), m&sna. Each rupee was to
value ten full mashas. A “ m&sha ” equalled 17} grains, and a rupee ten
xndshas.

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SUDRA.

272

and grandsons shall make us work as slaves, and have power to sell or
make a gift of us to others. On these conditions I execute this bond.

“ Dated 19th KArtik, 1201 B.S. (November 17941.”

Dr. Wise adds that, although slavery is illegal, and has been
so for many years, the buying and selling of domestio slaves still
goes on, and it may be safely said that there is hardly a family of
any distinction which has not several Bh And Aria on its establishment.
The life of the Nafr, or Shahna, as the slave is called in other parts of
the country, is most congenial to the Bengali. With rare exceptions
he is kindly treated, and in return he regards the welfare and
happiness of each member of the family as inseparable from his own;
Owing to the deaths of their masters many thousands are soattered
throughout Bengal, who are found working at all trades, and in
Chittagong, NoakhAli, and Tipperah do not oonsider themselves
degraded by holding a plough or wielding a mattock. In Bikramptir
they are often boatmen, while in Dacca Sudras are employed as oonfeo-
tioners, coolies, braziers, shop-keepers, and vendors oipdn and Indian
hemp. Even at the present day, however, any Sudrx who is rich and
provident oan raise his family by judicious marriages with pure
KAyasths as high as the Madhalya grade of that caste. Such families
drop the title Sudra, and after a generation or two beoome absorbed
in the ranks of reoognized KAyasths. This oiroumstance is the more
remarkable as the Sudras are certainly to some extent recruited
from among oastes inferior in social standing to the KAyasths. So
far as I am aware, no parallel instanoe can be quoted within the range
of the modem caste system. Thus, according to Dr. Wise, Brahmans,
BaidyAs, Sunris, and Baniyas possess slaves, but none of these oastes
have ever permitted their servants to rise in rank or assume an
equality with their masters. It is suggested by the KAyasths that
the Sudras of the present day are the descendants of the tribe
resident in Bengal before the advent of the Kanauj families ; but
this oonjeoture is erroneous, for not only are individuals being added
even now to the servile branoh, but admissions such as that of RAm
Kisto PA1, the subject of the deed of sale, who was a Tell by oaste,
oan be proved by existing documents.

In the oase of a girl the Sudras deem infant-marriage indispen-
sable, and it would disgrace a family to have
Mamag©. a daughter unmarried at the age of puberty.

Their sections are the same as those of the Brahmans, and they
observe the same set of prohibited degrees. They have, however, no
hypergamous groups, such as Kulin or Maulik. A bride-price (pan)
is paid to the parents of the bride, and girls seem as a rule to be
rather in demand. This is probably due to the fact that the lower
grades of pure KAyasths take wives from among the Sudras, but do
not give their daughters to men of that class. For this reason there
is a slight surplus of males in the Sudra group, and Sudra men often
marry comparatively late in life, and always have to purchase their
wives.

For the rest, Sudras oonform on the whole to the customs of the
Kayasth caste. Widows are not allowed to
marry again, and divorce is not recognized.

Social status.

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8UDRA.

273

SUKLI.

The status of the caste is respectable, and they rank immediately
below the Nabas&kh group. Brahmans take water from their hands,
and will as a rule permit them to eat in the same room with
themselves. Kdyasths, exoept the very orthodox, will eat oooked
food prepared by a Sudra. In matters of diet Sudraa themselves
follow the same rules as Hindus of the higher castes. In former
years they used to eat the leavings of influential Brahmans, Baidyas,
and K&yasths in whose houses they were employed as servants.
This custom, however, is now dying out.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of
Sudrasin 1872 and 1881 : —

District.

1878.

1881.

District.

1873.

1881.

Kankura

Dacca

17,391

Midnapur

Faridpur

Jessore

131

Bakarg&nj

8,989

9,673

Mursbedabad

Maimansinh

3,617

13,8"8

Dinajpur

Tipperah

2,513

9,199

Rajsnahye

Chittagong

SO, '.38

88,118

Rtngpnr

Noakhali

4,298

8,811

Pabna

Chittagong Hill Tracts ...

Suga, parrot, a totemistio sept

Korwas and Mundas in Chota
Nagpur.

Sug&in, a gdin or sub-section
of Saptasati Brahmans in
Bengal.

Sugardhar, a section of the
Biy&hut and Kharid&hA Kal-
w&rs in Behar.

Sugargane-Lo&m, a mul of
the Bar&sara section of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar.

Suia, a kind of little bird,
a totemistio sept of Bedi&s,
Kharwars and Lohdrs in Chota
Nagpur.

Suir, a synonym for Savar.

Sukalnaki, a sept of the
Suryabansi sub-tribe of Rajputs
in Behar.

Sukalv&la, a group of the
Adi Gaura sub-caste of Qaura
Brahmans.

Sukarb&r, a sept of the
Suryabansi sub-tribe of R&jputs
in Behar.

Sukhar, a group of the Aoghar
sect of Saiva asoetios founded in
Ouzerat by a Dasn&ni mendicant
named Brahmagiri. See Aoghar.

Sukhong, a sept of Limbus
in Darjiling.

Sukhs&rd, a pur or section of
S&kadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Sukli, a sub-caste of weavers
in Western Bengal ranking
below the Tantis. They use a
wooden shuttle; the Tantis an
iron one. Brahmans will eat
sweetmeats, etc., in a Tanti’s
house, not in a Sukli’s.

Sukli, a small cultivating oaste peouliar to the distriot of
e * Midnapur. Suklis claim to be the descendants

0ri ^ in ' of a Sulanki Rajput named Bir Singh, who

oame to Midnapur about six hundred years ago and built himself

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8UKLI.

274

8ULUNKHI-MAHILL

a lort at Birsinghpur in pargand KedArkunda. The remains of the
fort are still visible. It is flanked by two large mounds, called
Mundam&rui and GardAmArui, the former of whioh is said to oover
the heads, and the latter the bodies, of seven hundred Bagdis who
were slain by Bir Singh because they could not pronounce the word
hesh, meaning a mat made of date-leaves. The legend goes on to
say that after a time Bir Singh himself was defeated, and that his
followers then discarded the sacred thread, changed the name
Sulanki to Sukli, and settled down as cultivators. The internal
structure of the caste throws no light on its
internal structure. origin# Jt is divided into three sub-castes—

Barabh&iyA, BAhattarghari, and DasAsai. The first, which is
reokoned the highest in rank, is supposed to. be descended from the
twelve grandsons of Bir Singh. Their sections are of the ordinary
Brahmanio&l type.

Suklis marry their daughters as infants, forbid widows to marry
again, and do not recognize divorce. For
Marriage. religious and ceremonial purposes they employ

Brahmans, who however are not received on equal terms by other
members of the sacred order. Most of them are V aishnavas. They
burn their dead and perform the ceremony of srdddh in the orthodox
fashion on the thirty-first day after death.

Notwithstanding their conformity with all standard observances,
the social position of Suklis is very low. They
rank with Pods and DhobAs, and Brahmans
will not take water from their hands. Agri-
culture is their sole occupation. A few hold tenures and small
zamindAries, the hulk of the caste being occupancy raiyats.

In the Census Report of 1872 die Suklis were inoluded with
the TAntie. The following statement, however, shows their number
and distribution in 1881 : —

8ocial status and occu-
pation.

Bardwan

Birbhum

Midnapur

19,886

Hughli

Howrah

24-Pargan68

1,8

339

Sukru, potato, a totemistio
sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Suk8drini , probably a class of
religious mendicants.

Sukul, a title of KanaujiA,
SAraswata and Gaura Brahmans
in Behar.

Sukul bans, a sept of RAjputs
in Behar.

Sukul iyA, a sub-caste of
ChAsas in Orissa.

Sukwabah, a sept of Limbus
in Darjiling.

SukwAr, a sub-caste of Gul-
guli&s in Gya and Hazaribagh.

Sulankhi, a sub-tribe of Raj-
puts.— Tod's Rqjastkan , i, p. 74 ;
Sher. y i, p. 122; a sept of the
Chandrabansi division of Raj-
puts in Behar; a bird, a tote-
mistio sept of Bedims and Mundas
in ChotaNagpur.

SultAnpuriA, a section of So-
nArs in Behar.

Sulunkhi-Mahili, a sub-oaste
of Mahilis in Manbhum who are
generally labourers and servants.

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SUMAI.

275

SUNRI.

Sumai, a kind of fish, a
totemistic sept of Dhenudrs in
Ghota Nagpur.

Suman, a title of Bangaja
iLiyasihs.

Sum at, a totemistio section of
Turis, signifying a deer.

Sumedh iar, a tree, a totemistio
sept of Kharwars in Ghota Nae-
pur. 6

Sunaka, a gotra or section of
Brahmans in Bengal.

Sunam, a thar or sept of
D&mis in Darjiling whose chief
profession is sewing.

Sun&ri, a thar or sept of Man-
gars in Darjiling.

SundriS, a section of Qto&l&s
in the North-Western Provinces
and Behar.

Sundar, a section of the
Kishnaut sub-caste of Godlas in
Behar.

Sundas, a thar or sept of
D&mis in Darjiling whose chief
profession is sewing.

Sundi, a synonym for, and a
sub-caste of, Sunris in Bengal ; a
section of Godlis in Behar. In
Chota Nagpur, a totemistio sept

of Bedids, signifying mahud
flower.

Sundi Baniy&i a sub-caste of
Baniyds in Behar.

Sundi Deogam, a sept of
Hos in Singbhum.

Sundip, a sub-caste of Dhobis
in Noakhali.

Sundipd, a sub-caste of Jugis
and Ndpits in Noakhali.

Sundipe, a sub-caste of Kai-
barttas in Noakhali.

Sundri&ba, red mushroom, a
totemistio sept of Judngs in
Orissa.

Sung, a sub-sept of the Besrii
and Tudu septs of Santils.

Sungaru, a thar or sept of
Dimis in Darjiling, the members
of whioh are drummers by pro-
fession.

Sunga Sarbb&nandi, a met or
hypergamous sub-group of B&rhi
Brahmans in Bengal.

Sungdele, a thar or sept of
Khambus in Darjiling.

Sungutmung, a sept of Lep-
ohas in Darjiling.

Sunkewar, a sept of Kdj-
puts in Behar.

§Ultn, Saundika, Sundaka, Shhhd, a large and widely-diffused
Tradition, of origin. Sf 8 *®* found in most districts of Bengal and
. . Behar, whose original profession is believed to

be the manufacture and sale of spirituous liquors. Many of its

to mercantile pursuits, call themselves by
the title Bhaha, and disown all connexion with those who still follow
the characteristic occupation of the caste. Their striving for sooial
advancement has as yet not been entirely successful, and in spite of
their wealth and enterprise ancient associations still hold them down
The bond of tradition is hard to break. According to Hindu ideas
distillers and sellers of strong drink rank among the most degraded
castes, and a curious story in the Vaivarta Purana keeps alive the
degradation. II “ ^ that when §ani, the Hindu
Saturn, failed to adapt an elephant’s head to the mutilated trunk of
Ganeea, who had been accidentally beheaded by Siva, Viswa-Karnri,
the celestial artificer, was sent for, and by careful dissection and
manipulation he fitted the inoongruous parts together and made
a man called Ked&ra Sena from the slices out off in

8 2

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SUNRI.

276

work. This Ked&ra Sena was ordered to fetch a drink of water for
Bhagavati, weary and athirst. Finding on the river’s bank a shell
full of water he presented it to her, without noticing that a few
grains of rice left in it by a parrot had fermented and formed an
intoxicating liquid. Bhagavati, as soon as she had drunk, became
aware of the fact, and in her anger condemned the offender to the
vile and servile occupation of making spirituous liquors for mankind.
Another story traces their origin to a certain Bh&skar or Bh&skar
Muni, who was created by Krishna’s brother, Balardm, to minister
to his desire for strong drink. A different version of the same
legend gives them for ancestor Niranjan, a boy found by Bh&skar
floating down a river in a pot full of oountry liquor, and brought
up by him as a distiller. Others, again, following the traditional
method of accounting for the formation of castes, believe that Sunris
are descended from a Yaisya man and a Tiyar woman.

Putting these fables aside, we may, I think, find in the internal
structure of the Sunri caste, and most of all
a . » j n the num b©r and diversity of its endogamous

and exogamous divisions, some ground for believing that it probably
comprises several independent groups, which have arisen in different
parts of the country to supply the wants of the community in the
matter of strong drink. In Manbhum, for example, eight sub-castes
are said to be known : Ariy&r, Bi&hut, Maghatyd, Lakargarh&,
Holongw&r, Paripdl, Sikhariyd, Chaturth&n. The first three
admit intermarriage and have jpraoticaUy become amalgamated into
a single endogamous group. These Sunris have totemistio sections,
permit the adult-marriage of girls and the remarriage of widows,
allow divorce by the tearing of a sdl leaf, and generally show the
characteristics of non-Aryan races who are beginning to oome under
the influence of Hinduism. In Behar, as a reference to Appendix
I will show, the sub-castes and seotions are very numerous ; but the
latter are mostly titular, and I cannot find that any totemistio usages
are connected with the two (Hathi and Bichhu) which appear to bear
animal names. In Bhagalpur the Kul-Sunri sub-oaste is further sub-
divided into groups called chatais (mats, hence those who sit together
on the same piece of matting), the members of which may not inter-
marry. So far as I am aware, the chatdis have no distinctive names.

In Central and Western Bengal four sub-castes are found—
R&rhf, B&rendra, Bangd, and Magi. In Eastern Bengal, according
to Dr. Wise, the caste is subdivided into two sections, or §reni
R&rhf and B&rendra. The former are distillers, called Sdnrf ; the
latter traders, who have assumed the title of S&h& or merohant,
which is said to be a corruption of S&dhu, ‘ perfect, honest.’ Sahas
usually object to being called Sunris, and affect to belong to a
distinct caste from the latter. By some authorities, however, they
are held to be descended from a $tidra father and a Sdnri mother.
My own enquiries go to show that the sub-castes are now more
numerous than they were in Dr. Wise’s time.

The Magi or Maghaiya sub-oaste of Central and Western Bengal
seems to derive its name from some real or supposed connexion
with Behar, and may possibly be composed mainly of immigrants
from that province. In various parts of Eastern Bengal a Magi

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277

SUNRI.

grenf, distinct from the B&fhi or Bdrendra, and accounted fallen
and outcaste, is to be met with. It is stated that in old days the
Mags made marauding expeditions into this part of Bengal and
outraged some Sunri women, whose offspring, defiled by the doubt
as to their paternity, became the nuoleus of a new sub-caste. The
Stinri barber and washerman work for them, but they always have
purohits of their own.

S&ha or Sh£h& is the common title of the caste, bnt on becoming
rich a merohant often adopts D£s as a surname by way of conceal-
ing the fact that he is a Sunri. Dr. Wise also mentions a case
in whioh a well-known S£h& trader of Dacca selected Bif
Chaudharf as his family name. In the Maimansinh district a
colony of S£has have taken the title of P&njha, but oan give no
reason for doing so. They are chiefly talukd£rs, writers, and shop-
keepers, who eat and intermarry with S£has mother parts of Bengal.

In Bengal Proper the sections are comparatively few, and the
rule of exogamy seems to be gradually falling
ogamy * into disuse and giving way to the less archaic

system of reckoning prohibited degrees from a common anoestor.
The 8unris of Chota Nagpur observe the simple rule that a man
may not marry a woman of his own section, and supplement this by
a rather meagre table of prohibited decrees. In Behar marriage
within the eection denoted by the title is usually forbidden, but it
sometimes happens that the group included under one title has split
into two by reason of a quarrel or in oonsequenoe of the number of
families in the group having increased so as to render the prohibition
of marriage within the group unnecessary or inoonvenient. In such
oases one would primd fade expect the newly-formed groups to
adopt new titles or to qualify the original titles so as to indicate
the change; but I am unable to quote instances where this has
taken place. For reckoning prohibited degrees on the mother’s side
the standard formula in use is calculated to seven generations in
the descending line. On the father’s side the rule is said to be
that a man may not marry any of his Ke*-Kata female relatives,
that is to say, any of the women whose male relations would have
to shave their heads if a death ooourred in the family of the
person whose marriage is in question.

The Sunns of Bengal marry their daughters as infants, and
Man . striotly prohibit widow-marriage and divorce.

# Marrtage ‘ In Behar and Chota Nagpur adult-marriages

occasionally take plaoe when the parents of the girl are too poor to
arrange for her marriage before the age of puberty. When both
parties are children, the question of age is not minutely enquired
into, and the essential point is that the bridegroom should be taller
than the bride. This fact is ascertained by actual measurement—
a method whioh commends itself to illiterate people, who keep no
record of their children’s ages. In the negotiations whioh preoede
the marriage, height of the parties is stated in girahs , and it is said
to be the right thing for a girl to be married when she is from
12 to 14 girahe high and a boy when he is from 12 to 16 tjirahs. It
is unusual for a girl to be unmarried at 16 girahs or a hoy at 17.

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When a girl is considered marriageable, one of her relatives or
a professional marriage-broker is deputed to look out for a suitable
bridegroom and to oonduot the preliminary bargaining with his
family. If the broker’s overtures are favourably received, the bride*
groom’s father, accompanied by some of his relations, visits the
bride’s house and puts a garland of flowers (hdr) on her neck. This
ceremonial visit is returned by the bride’s father, who also sends
a present ( tilak ) of money, clothes, etc., to the bridegroom. Accord-
ing to the custom of the caste, the tilak must not exoeed Us. 101
or be less than Be. 1 or a pair of dhotis . When the tilak has
been presented, a Brahman astrologer is called in to fix a luoky
day for the wedding. This takes place in the bride’s house.
The ceremony is of the orthodox type, and sindurddn , or the
smearing of vermilion on the bride’s forehead and the parting of
her hair, is believed to be its binding portion.

Polygamy is permitted, but it is unusual for a man to have
more than two wives, and a second wife is usually only taken
when the first wife is found to be barren. By all sub-oastes except
the Biy&hut, a widow is allowed to marry again by the sagai
or chumaund ritual. As a rule this oonsists merely of sindur-
ddn , but sometimes, when the parties are rich, the ceremony is
amplified by introducing some of the forms used at the marriage
of a virgin bride. In Chota Nagpur divoroe is effeoted, with
the sanction of the panch&yat, by tearing a sdl leaf in two as a
symbol of separation. Divorced wives may marry again within the
caste. In Behar divorce is not recognized, and a woman taken in
adultery is simply turned out of the oaste, and probably ends by
joining some of the less reputable religious sects or becoming
a prostitute. The Bengal Sunris follow the same rule, but also
hold that the husband is polluted by the sin of the wife. They
therefore require him to perform an expiatory oeremony (prayas-
chitta) y which consists, according to tradition, of giving from three
to eleven (kahans) of cowries to a Brahman. At the present day,
however, one four-anna bit is given for each kdhan .

According to Dr. Wise almost every member of the oaste is
Beikrion a ^°^ ower Ohaitanya, and the rich are

. on * celebrated for the ostentatious observance of

the Sankirttana chants in honour of Krishna after the decease of
any relative. The chief rites observed in Eastern Bengal are the
worship of Ganesa on the 1st of Bais&kh (April-May) and the 1st
of Aghan (November-December) ; of Gandheswari on the 10th of
Asin (September-October) ; of Durga at the time of the Durga Puja
in October; and of Gangd whenever their boats are starting on a
trading voyage. The majority being Yaishnavas, animals are rarely
offered to any deity, but when this is done the victim is afterwards
released. Sndhis are very fond of pigeons, and in the courtyard of
almost every house a dovecot is fixed, as they believe that the air
fanned by pigeons’ wings wafts them luck. They are also devoted
worshippers of K&rtikeya, the Hindu god of war, constructing
annually in November a life-size effigy of the god, and keeping it
within the female enclosure for a year. Other Hindu castes throw

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279

SUNBI.

the image into the river immediately after the KArtik Puja, but the
8hahfis allege that their special veneration of the god is often rewarded,
the barren rejoicing and the husband beooming the joyful father of
children. It is easy to understand in what way this figure gives rise
to soandalous stories among Bengalis, and how the S&ha become©
a butt for the wit and sarcasm of his neighbours.

The Behar Sunris follow the average Hinduism of that part of
the country, and worship most of the regular gods as occasion offers.
Their minor gods are very numerous — Dharam Raj, Bandi, Goraiya,
Govindji, Hanum&n, Kari Panji&r, Joti Panjiar, Apurba Panjiar in,
Mir&, Saiyad, Jalpd, 8okh&, Hasankhin, and the Panoh Pir. Rice
cooked in milk ana sugar (Mir), cakes of ghl (puri), and various kinds
of fruit, are offered to them and afterwards eaten by the worshippers.
Elds are sacrificed to Bandi. On Sundays milk and flowers are olfered
to the sun. In Bengal, says Dr. Wise, the Brahman, peculiar to the
caste, boasts that he never accepts alms from any one not a Sunrl,
but it is quite certain that none of the dean castes would present
him with charity. These Brahmans, who assume the bombastio
titles of Vidy£s6gar, Yidydlank&r, Chakravartti, and P&thak,
like the purohits of other low castes, read the funeral service at the
burning gh&t, and are looked down upon by other members of the
sacred order. The Sunris of Behar are served by a low class of
Maithil Brahmans, who also minister to the religious necessities
of the Teli caste. No other Brahmans will eat and drink with

these men, who are known by the contemptuous epithet of Telid
Bdbhan. In Chota Nagpur the Brahmans who serve the Sdnris
call themselves Kanaujids, but they have no right to the name,
and no other Brahmans will have anything to do with them.

Sunris bum their dead and perform the regular srdddh cere-

fv. ...... mony in Bengal on the thirtieth, and in Behar

Duposal of the dead. ^ dfty ^ death The W

K ' dical oblations for the benefit of departed ancestors are poured
on the new moon of Kdrtik (Ootober-November) .

Social statu. in Bengal. th ® *° U ° wi “& ,° f th «

social status of Sunris m B astern Bengal : —

“ The Srinri is a very degraded individual, indulging freely in
intoxicating liquors. A Brahman may not utter his name before
noon. The majority of the workmen in the Government Abkdri,
or Excise Department, are Sunris, and most of the gdnja shops
are owned by them. The Hindustani distiller (Kaldr, Ealwdr) has
nothing in common with the Sunri , as he only manufactures spirit,
and will not vend it — an occupation carried on by Eurmis, or
Baniyas.

“ The Sdha, again, is perhaps the most enterprising and prosper-
ous community in Bengal, comprising a large number of the cloth
merchants, salt-traders, wood-dealers, and bankers. They are
usually known as Amda-w&ld , or traders who import goods wholesale
and sell them to petty dealers by retail. Mah&jan, Golad&r, and
Arhatd&r, or broker, are also oommon designations. Notwith-

standing their improved position of late years, they are still utterly
abandoned in the eyes of the Hindus. Even the Bhufmn&l/., who

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280

works for them y will not touch their food, and a Cha^dtil loses caste
if he lays his hand on the stool on whioh one of them is sitting.
There is a saying among Bengalis that if a §udra be walking
down a narrow lane with only Stinri houses on each side, and an
elephant approaches, he ought to allow the elephant to trample
him under foot rather than take refuge in a house of the accursed.
The Dhobti and Ntipit are members of the Stinri caste, the §tidra
washerman and barber declining to work for them. Although the
§tidra Ntipit occasionally shaves the Stihas, he will not attend at any
of their religious ceremonies. When a member of the caste has to be
employed. A Stinri will not cultivate the soil, although he does
so m Central Bengal, nor will he ply as a boatman unless the boat
belongs to his oaste and is entirely manned by Stinris. He is
also prohibited from becoming a fisherman and from selling fish in
the market.” Some of the lower classes of Stinris have taken to
working as carpenters and thatohers of houses.

In Behar the Darohtia Sunns, who manufacture, and the
In Behar Gan j wtir, Dhakankorti, Sikhariti, and Chaurthtin

Sunris, who deal in oountry liquor, are consi-
dered lower in point of sooial standing than Kul-Sunri, Sagtihut,
and Biahut sub-castes, the members of which are usually shop-keepers
or dealers in grain. The entire caste, however, oooupies a low
position in the Hindu social system, and Telis are the highest oaste
whioh will take water from their hands. As a rule they affect to
observe the restrictions in matters of diet which are characteristic of
the Yaishnava sect, but the Kul-Sunris of Bhagalpur admit that they
oat mutton, goat flesh, all kinds of fish, and even field-rats. Most of
them indulge pretty freely in strong drink. Many Sunris have taken
to cultivation, but comparatively few appear to have risen above the
grade of tenure-holder or raiyat with ocoupanoy rights.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of
Sunris in 1872 ana 1881. In the former year the figures of the districts
in Behar and Chota Nagpur inolude those of Kalwars and Kaltils.

District

1872.

1881.

Disrtict.

1872.

1881.

Bard wan

22.269

19,688

Chittagong

1.742

2,162

Bankura

...

12,657'

21,166

Noakhali

6,895

5,981

Birbhum

21,173

16,841

Patna

16,666

7,899

Midn&pur •••

3.08*

7,666

Gya

9,246

6,643

Hughli

} 6,609

13.272

( 3,660

Shahabad

20,596

4,409

Howrah
24-ParganAe ...

i 1,771
6,270

} M.l»

f 22,666
l 26,440

Nadiya

10,188

9,495

8aran

23,533

1,163

Khulna

9,998

Champaran

Monghyr

32,666

422

Munhedabad

16,411

18,039

26,703

8,982

Jeatore

...

84.146

17,170

Bhagalpur

36,861

12,102

Dinajpur

6,686

4,408

Puraiah

18,724

14,139

Bajshahye ...

...

8,228

6,871

Maldah

4,792

7,233

Bangpur

...

7,692

4,939

S&ntAI ParganAs ...

18,242

20,302

Born

6,689

6,775

Cuttaok

3,246

4,261

Pabna

...

29,728

25,319

Puri

1,976

1,769

Darjiling

...

466

fialasore

1,757

1,588

Jalpigori

...

1,116

1,447

Tributary 8tatea ...

8,463

9,383

Knch Behar ...

• M

667

Hazarlb>'gh

13,277

17,576

Dacca

...

63,611

68,299

Lohard&gA

9,984

9,812

Fnridpur

...

26,677

34,491

8ingbhum

3,274

2,611

Bakarganj ...
Maimanainh ...
Tipperah

26,160

36,982

36,323

16,846

44,368

32,749

Manbhum

Tributary States ...

19,080

1,868

18,346

2,834

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SUNRI DHANUK.

281

8UNUWAR.

SunrI Dh&nuk, a sub-caste of Dh&nuks in Behar.

Sunriet, a mul or section of the Ghosin sub-oaste of Goalas
in Behar.

Sunriw&r-Solhni, a mul of the Pariisara seotion of Maithil Brah-
mans in Behar.

Sonicdr, a cultivating tribe of Nepal, forming with the
Mangar Gurung and Ehas the olass known as
** Mukhya or chief. Although in theory the

Sunuwirs are a strictly endogamous group, intermarriage with
Mangars and Gurungs is tacitly recognized. The ceremony cannot
be performed in publio, but suoh unions are admitted to be valid, and
the children are counted in all respects as Sunuw&rs, exoept that
during the first generation Sunuwars of the whole blood may not take
rioe or dal from their hands. In the seoond generation this disability
oeases to have effect. Sunuwars say that they came originally from
Simungarh near Bara Chhatri in Western Nepal, and that wandering
east they came to Chuplu on the Likhukhola river and took possession
of it. Makwani Raja was then ruler of Eastern Nepal. Likhukhola
and Ehuntikhola are now the main settlements of the tribe.

The internal structure of the tribe is shown in Appendix I. There
are no sub-tribes. All the names of the septs
8 end in cha , which is conjectured by Babu Sarat

Chandra Das, C.I.E., to be a corruption of the Sanskrit ja, bom of.
Presumably, therefore, they have reference to descent, and further
analysis may show that they preserve the names or nicknames of the
first founders of the septs. For the following derivations and
explanations I am indebted to Babu Sarat Chandra Das : — Jespucha
means ‘bom of the Jespu,’ a tree, called Kairal by the Ehas of
Nepal Proper, the flowers of which are eaten by the hill people.
E&tioha-E&ti is the name of a place. Jirel is supposed to be a
mixed sept arising from a cross with some tribe not belonging to
the Mukhya group. Although it is reokoned as a sept or thar , pure
Sunuw&rs do not intermarry with its members, nor will they eat
ddl or rioe cooked by them. For all that the Jirel have not beoome
endogamous, but marry with half-bred Sunuwars and other tribes
of the Mukhya and Eirdnti groups. In Nepal tribal distinctions
are not so sharply drawn as in India, and the offspring of mixed
marriages find plenty of people in much the same position as
themselves. The Wangdeoha sept is considered in some sense inferior
to the rest. Although they are admitted to marry with the other
septs, ddl and rioe are not taken from their hands. Wandeh is
said to be a Tibetan word, and it may be that this sept immigrated
from Tibet after the others had beoome familiar with Hindu ideas.
Eyahbohoha means ‘bom from a Eyahboh’ (Tibetan Kyahpo ), a rope
ladder used by the hillmen for descending the face of a cliff to get
wild honey, of whioh they are very fond. The fact that the two
septs, Leokioha and Jespuoha, are both called Pretioha or earth- bom,
and may not intermarry, does not suggest any inference as to the
affinities of the tribe.

In most cases girls are married after they are grown up to men
„ . „ of their own ohoice, and sexual intercourse

Man-iag* before marriage is tacitly reoognized on the

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SUNUWXB.

282

understanding that in the event of the girl becoming pregnant she
will be married without delay. Infant-marriage, however, is some-
times resorted to by well-to-do families which have been infected by
Hindu ideas. Polygamy is allowed, but is not largely resorted to.
If a man’s first wife has no children, he is held to be justified in
taking a second, and the matter is often arranged by hit marrying
his first wife’s younger sister — an arrangement which i& naturally
more conducive to domestic peace than the selection of an outsider.
The ‘marriage ceremony oonsists for the most part of ritual borrowed
from the Hindus, and sindurdan , or the smearing of vermilion on
the bride’s forehead and the parting of her hair, is the essential and
binding portion. In addition to the standard forms, we find the
peouliar usage that the bride’s parents wash her feet when they give
her to the bridegroom and splash the water over their own heads.
By doing this they believe that they wash from her, and as it were
take back, the quality of membership of her original sept, and
transfer her to the sept of the bridegroom. On the next morning
the bride washes the bridegroom’s feet, and drinks the water, saying
at the time that she does this as a sign that she has entered his sept
and is truly his wife. After this has been done, she is considered
competent to oook rice and d&l for her husband and the members of
his sept. The Nepalese regard it as characteristic of the Mukhya
group that they treat the son-in-law as a very important personage
and in a way worship him ; while the Kirantis look upon turn rather
in the light of a servant. By Kiranti custom, if a young man runs
away with a girl and is unable to pay the fine whioh is appointed for
such cases, his children by her are regarded and may be claimed as
slaves by her parents. It is ourious to find that the girl’s maternal
unde is deemed the proper person to demand payment of the fine.
The explanation of the difference of the Mukhya and Kiranti points
of view is probably to be found in the fact that the former have
been more affected than the latter by Hindu ideas, whioh tend
always to exaggerate the value of men and to depreciate women. .

A widow may not marry again by the standard ritual ordained
for the marriage of a spinster, but she may live with a man without
going through any ceremony at all, and in such cases publio opinion
recognizes her as his wife. Her children are deemed legitimate, and
their status is in no way inferior to that of ohildren corn from a
woman married by the full oeremony. If the deceased husband
leaves a younger mother, married or unmarried, he is held to have
a prior claim on the person of the widow, and she may not take up
with another man until he has decided not to exercise his rights.
Divorce is permitted on the ground of the adultery or misconduot of
the wife. ^Divorced women may marry again in the same manner
as widows, and their children by seoond husbands are deemed legiti-
mate. Usually the first husband keeps his own ohildren, but if the
divoroed wife is allowed to take them with her, as sometimes happens,
they are treated as the ohildren of her second husband.

In point of religion the Sunuwars may be described as
. undeveloped Hindus, still retaining many traces

Uglon ' of an earlier animistic faith. They offer rice,

flowers, sandal wood and vermilion to 6iva, and sacrifice goats to

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8UNUWAR.

283

SURAHIYA.

Kdli, when siokness or domestic trouble afflicts them. Bhim Sen,
the second of the Pdndava brethren, is worshipped with saorifioes of
he-goats, buffaloes, ducks, fowls and pigeons; hut buffaloes are
offered only on rare occasions, and the minor victims are usually-
thought sufficient. Tuesdays and Saturdays are the auspioious days.
Offerings of rioe, flowers and sital-patti leaves are also made to the
rivers and mountain torrents and to the main peaks of the Himalayas
visible from Nepal. Upadhya Brahmans serve them as priests and
are received on equal terms by other members of the saored order in
Nepal. Among the minor religious observances of the tribe may be
mentioned their solemn worship of the oow under the name of
Lakshmi on the new moon of the month of Kartik, and their practioe
of marrying banyan and the pipul when found growing side by side.
Most Sunuwars bury their dead and observe the same funeral
^ , - oeremonies as the Mangars ; but some well-to-do

poeal 0 people have of late years taken to the Hindu

practioe of cremation, and perform a regular sraddh on the tenth or
twelfth day after death.

The tribe believe hunting to have been their original occu-
pation, and many of them are still strongly
Occupation. addicted to the chase. The bulk of the tribe,
however, live by agriculture aud pastoral pursuits.

Sup&hd, a section of Kanau-
jid Lohdrs in Behar.

Supahran, a mul or section of
the Kanaujia sub-caste of Sondrs
in Behar.

Supd-Parghd, a sub-caste of
Parghds in Behar.

Sup&rd, a sub-caste of Dorns
in Behar.

Supat, a section of the Chha-
jdti sub-caste of Khatris in
Bengal.

Suphar, a section of Kase-
rds in Behar.

Supolia, a title of Dorns who
make sup, a bamboo work for
separating the chaff from the
grain.

Sur, a title of Dakshin-Rdrhi
and Bangaja Kdyasths and of
Sdnkhdris and Sadgops in Bengal.

Surabani, a section of
hdrs in Singbhum.

Kum-

Suraiyd, Sorahaiyd, Kalwat-Malldh , a boating, fishing,
cultivating, and labouring caste of Behar.
n&XL According to Dr. Wise their origin, like that

of other boatmen, is traced to the fabulous hero Nikhdd. There is
a shadowy connexion between the Surahiya and Chdin. The former
use the water vessels and hookahs of the latter; but the Chdin,
assuming a higher rank, will smoke, but will neither eat nor
intermarry with Surahiyd. The Surahiyds have no traditions of
their own, except the common one that their ancestors came ‘ from
the west.’

Both infant and adult-marriage are in vogue, but the former is
. deemed more respectable. The marriage cere-

amage ‘ mony is the same as is used by most of the

lower castes, sindurddn being the binding portion. Polygamy is

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8URAHIYA.

284

8UHAI.

allowed, but is not practised on a large scale. A widow may marry
a seoond time. It is thought right for her to marry her late hus-
band’s younger brother if there is one, but she is not positively
obliged to do so. Divorce is not recognized.

In matters of religion the SurahiyAs profess to be orthodox
Religion. Hindus, and employ Maithil Brahmans for

religious and oeremonial purposes. In practice,
however, the greater gods of the Hiudu Pantheon receive only
occasional worship, and the working religion of the caste is concerned
rather with the mysterious group known as the Pinoh Piur, Koil
Baba, the boatman’s deity, and Amar Singh, a canonised Surahiya,
who seems to be their special patron. In his honour a part of the
house is daubed with cow-dung on stated days in every month
of the year except Paus ( Deoember- January ) and Chait (March-
April), and goats, rioe, sweetmeats, ghi, eto , offered, and incense
burned, the worshippers afterwards partaking of the offerings
themselves.

In point of sooial standing the Surahiyas rank immediately
below the group of castes from whose hands
Brahmans will take water. Thus Koiris,
Barais, Gangotas, who belong to that group,
will aooept sweetmeats from Surahiyas, but will not eat boiled rioe
in their houses. The characteristic occupation of the caste is boating
and fishing. Dr. Wise describes them as enterprising and hardy
sailors often met with in Eastern Bengal during the cold season in
large trading vessels laden with grain, pulse, or fuller’s earth,
whioh is sold to mahajam and a cargo of rice shipped for the
return voyage. They are very muscular and large-boned, and
their physique offers a striking contrast to that of the average
Bengali boatman. Some Surahiyas have taken to cultivation,
and hold land as occupancy and non-occupancy raiyats. Their
number, however, is comparatively small, and there are at
present no signs of their developing into a sub-caste : in fact,
even cultivating Surahiy&s are ready to engage themselves as
boatmen.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of
Surahiyas in 1881. The figures of 1872 were returned among those of
f others ’ of the Boating and Fishing castes.

Social status and occu-
pation.

Dibtbict.

1881.

Distbict.

1881.

Birbhnm ...

106

Darbhanga

24-PargmnAa

Mozufferpur ...

Hurxhedab&d

890

Ch&mpar&n

Monghyr

Khagalpur

Purnian

Dinaipur ...
Bajsnuhye ...
Rangpur ...

978

168

2.868

2,199

406

Maimansinh

Maldah

686

Patna

...

Sant&l ParganAs

ISO

Shahabad ...

1,844

Singbhum ...

Sur&i, a mel or hypergamous sub-group of B4rhi Brahmans in
Bengal.

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8CJBAIYA.

285

8URAJ.BANSI.

Suraiyd, a synonym fgjfor
Surahiyi.

Surajbansi, Surjabansi, a
sab-caste of Tiyars; a synonym
for Rajw&r ; a title of the Kochh

tribe in Northern Bengal; a divi-
sion of BAjputs ; a sub-caste of
Go&l&s in the North-Western
Provinces and Behar. See
Suryabansi.

§ttrar-banBi. This title, properly denoting one of the two main
stocks of KAjputs, has been assumed within comparatively recent
times by a hybrid Mongoloid caste claiming to be the aborigines of
Kamrup and now inhabiting the jungly tracts of Bhowal in Eastern
Bengal. According to l>r. Wise, from whose notes this article is con-
densed, the Suraj-bansis were formerly regarded as akin to the Kochh- •
maud&i, but the Brahmana taking advantage of their credulity and
ignorance, led them to believe that they were descendants of the
Chhatri who, by throwing away their sacred thread, escaped the axe
of Parasur6ma. Accordingly, in 1871, a body of representative
Suraj-bansis went to the house of their zamiudir, Kill Ndrayana
Bai, Bai Bahadur, a Srotriya Brahman, and requested him to
reinvest them with the sucred cord. An offer of five hundred rupees
was made, but declined. Disappointed at this unexpected rebuff,
they retired to oonsult, and afterwards raised their offer to two thousand.
This sum allayed the scruples of the Brahman, the saored oord was
with due solemnity presented, and ever since the Suraj-bansi have
assumed the high rank of Chhatri, to the great disgust of the
Hindus of those parts.

The Koohh-mand&i, who reside in the same jungle, assert that
a few years ago the Suraj-bansi were known as Koohh-mandAi, and
even at present Bansi is their ordinary appellation. The Suraj-bansi
are peculiar to BhowAl, and are not met with beyond the limits of
the Daoca district. They are oertainly allied to the Kochh-mandai,
but have modified the Mongoloid type by marrying with low Bengali
castes. Their original language, probably a dialect of Garo, has
been forgotten, and Bengali is universally spoken. The Suraj-bansi
is generally a darker and taller, but less muscular man, than the
Kochh-mandai. Certain of them still retain the peouliar Mongoloid
cast of features, with oblique eyelids and scanty growth of hair ; but
the majority have the oommon Bengali countenance, with bushy
moustaches and voluminous cues, for tney have adopted the Yaish-
nava fashion of wearing the hair. They already call themselves
worshippers of Vishnu, and have engaged the services of a Patit-
Brshman as purohit. Twice a year, in Phalgun and Baisakh, they
worship under a M tree Kamukha Devi, the tutelary goddess of
Kamrup. Durga, Manasa Devi, and Bura-Buri are invoked in
seasons of sickness and domestio trouble, and especial honour is paid
to the sun as the reputed ancestor and eponym of the oaste. They
have borrowed three gotras , Kasyapa, Aliman, and Madhu-Kuliya,
and marriages into the same gotra are strictly forbidden. Widow-
marriage has been abandoned ; divorce is prohibited, and the Hindu
system of marrying girls before puberty adopted. Furthermore,
having assumed the sacred thread of the Chhatns, they imitate them
in observing the sr&ddha on the nineteenth day after death.

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8URAJ-BANSI.

286

SUEYABANSI.

u Hindus they are not admitted to belong to a dean oaste, but
the Sudra servants are beginning to work for them, and in a few
years they will doubtless have secured an established position. The
Koohh-mandai affirm that the Suraj-bansf secretly indulge in the
forbidden luxury of pork, although to curious strangers the faot is
stoutly denied. It is a familiar experience that this taste survives
in many tribes long after they have adopted the external observances
of Hinduism. Almost all Suraj-bansis are cultivators, growing rioe,
pulse, tobacoo, mustard and ootton on dearings in the jungle. Fish-
ing is deemed dishonourable. A few who have aoquired a slight
knowledge of Bengali are employed as traders or servants to land-
holders.

Surajdhaj, a sub-caste of
Kdyastns in Behar.

Suran, a section of Rautids in
Ghota Nagpur.

Suranid, a seotion of Kharids
in Ghota Nagpur.

Surat, a section of the Ghosin
sub-caste of Godlds in Behar.

Suratwald, ‘a good looking
man,’ a synonym for Bamasankar.
In Gyd an ironioal designation of
the illegitimate descendants of
Gyawals by women of the Rajput,
Babhan, and Bhdt castes, but not
of lower castes.

Surdvd, a sub-caste of Malldhs
in Behar.

Suren, a section of Turis in
Ghota Nagpur.

Sureswari, a gotra or section
of Subamabaniks in BengaL

Suret, a mul or section of the
Kanaujid sub-caste of Sonars in
Behar.

Surgane, a mul of the Pardsara
seotion of Maithil Brahmans in
Behar.

Surgrid, a section of Bdbhans
in Behar.

Surhi, a wild cow, a totemis-
tic sept of Mundas in Chota
Nagpur.

Suri, fly, a totemistio sept of
Mundas in Ghota Nagpur; a
seotion of the Bahdnnajdti sub-
caste of Khatris in Bengal; a
synonym for 8unri.

Surijhabu, a sept of Ghiks in
Ghota Nagpur.

Suri I, a totemistio sept of
Mundas who do not propitiate
the ‘ Churin Deota.’

Surin, a sept of Mnndas in
Chota Nagpur.

Surinwdr, a section of Turis
in Ghota Nagpur.

Surjdhd, a seotion of the
Biydhut and Khariddhd Kal-
wdrs in Behar.

Surkhi, a sept of the Suiya-
bansi sub-tribe of BAjputs in
Behar.

Surnair, a sept of Rdjputs in
Behar.

Suruan, a sept of Pdns in
Chota Nagpur.

Surunia, neck ornament, a
sept of Kharwars in Chota
Nagpur.

Surwdr, a sept of the Suiya-
bansi Rdjputs in Behar.

Suryabansi, Surji, i descend-
ant of the sun/ an honorific
title assumed by many oastes,

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8URYABAN8I.

287

8UTBADHAR.

particularly the Rajputs, and
castes which, like the Dravidian
R&jbansi Koohh of Northern
Bengal, attempt to affili ate them-
selves to the I&Ajputs ; a sub-tribe
of RAjputs in Behar; a thar or
sept of Mangars in Darjiling.

Suryabansi Ldma, a thar or
sept of Gurungs in Darjiling.

Surya-dwija, a sub-oaste of
TAmbulis in Behar.

Susan, a sept of Mundas in
Chota Nagpur.

Susw&r, Suswdri, a title

E a by the former Rajas of
garh to some of their

servants of theHajjAm or Kah&r
caste, whose duty was to superin-
tend their master’s stores of pro-
vision and edibles.

Suta, a sub-caste of Aguris in
Western Bengal.

Suthrd Sahi , Sutrasdht , certain
sect of mendicants said to be
worshippers of Nirgun — God,
void of qualities. They attract
notice when soliciting alms by
beating two sticks together.

gttiihar, a low oaste who
spin cotton thread.

8utihdr , a synonym for
Barhi in Behar.

Chhutdr , the carpenter oaste of Bengal, named
- .... . . . thread-holder, from the Sanskrit siitra, the

Traditions of origin. ^ ^ ^ g&w ig

marked. Sdtradhars claim descent from YiswakarmA, or, according
to others, from Kama, son of Kunti by the sun- god before her
marriage to PAndu. Kama, as is stated in the MahAbhArata, was
exposed by his mother on the banks of the Jumna, where he
was found by Adhiratha, the charioteer of DhritarAshtra. The
Sdtradhars seem to have adroitly taken advantage of the resemblance
between the words siita, a charioteer, and chhutdr or mtar^ a
carpenter, to equip themselves with a mythological pedigree of
undoubted respectability. Their ingenuity, however, has availed
them little. That shrewd observer Dr. Wise describes them as a
very low oaste, recruited from one of the aboriginal raoes of Eastern
Bengal, and largely employed in boat-building. He also quotes the
story that in the time of BallAl Sen the Sdtradhars lodged a
complaint against the Brahmans for not performing religious cere-
monies for them until all other castes had been served, whereupon
the king, to prevent all further controversy, enrolled them among
the nicha or low castes, and gave them a special Brahman of their
own. Another legend says that they were degraded for delay in
supplying the wood required by the Brahmans for certain sacrifices.

The internal structure is rather intricate, and they furnish a

internal structure. S™ 1 instance of the tendenoy to multiply
suD-castes, which has already been notioed as
characteristic of the lower social groups in the Hindu system. No
less than twenty-five sub-castes are shown in Appendix I, and
though the materials at my disposal were fairly ample, I am by no
means confident that the enumeration is exhaustive. Of these groups
some are local, others occupational, while for many of the names no
explanation at all is forthcoming. Thus the Western Bengal sub-
castes are based on distinctions of locality, except the GoAIAChuiyA,

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SUTRADHAR.

288

a group of unoert&in origin. In Daooa the Chhut&r sub-caste make
boats, household furniture, beams, wheels, and ploughs ; the Churfi-
Kutf paroh and husk rioe, make wooden necklaces, and burn shells
for lime ; the K&thuri& make ploughs, tubs, platters, and wooden
agricultural implements.

The Chhut&rs claim, and are admitted to have, precedence of
the other two divisions. They are all included in one gotra , the
Alamyan, and invariably belong to the Yaishnava creed. The caste
has a panch&yat, but no union (dal), and their headman, styled
Pardmdtiik, settles disputes between members. It is derogatory
for a Chhut&r to fell a tree, whioh is done by a class of Chand&ls
called Karati f from the Sanskrit Kara-patra, a saw. Turning
(kund-kdri), however, is the legitimate occupation of a carpenter,
and he is permitted to make moulds used by oonfectioners for
preparing fancy sweetmeats, and by plasterers for ornamenting
cornices and roofs. Chbut&rs never cultivate the soil, but frequently
carry on business as mah&jans or wholesale traders. Muhamadan
carpenters, unknown in Dacca, are common in Chittagong, where
they are employed as shipwrights.

The members of the Chur&kuti sub-caste are gradually
relinquishing their ancestral trade, aud of late years have taken
Muhamadan servants to husk rioe, while they themselves act
as grooers, selling pulse, grain, and oils, or as writers, servants,
and shop-keepers. The only wooden article now made by them is
the sandal wood necklace worn by all Hindus The Purohit is
distinct from the family priest of the other subdivisions. The
headman is styled Pradh&n, and the only gotra is Alamyan. The
Chur&kuti are all Vaishnavas in creed, the guru Deing the
Farid&bid Gos&i'n. Their principal festivities are the Gandheswari
on the 10th Aswin (September), and New Year’s day, on the 1st of
Bais&kb.

The K&thuriA subdivision, scattered throughout the Dacca
district, is engaged in cultivating the soil, building boats, and
manufacturing lime with the fresh water shells dredged from the
extensive jhils, or marshes, in the interior of Bikrampur, being for
this reason often confounded with the B&iti or Ohunari caste, a
perfectly distinct community.’ The Brahman of this sub-caste is
an Ach&rji, who performs the same religious ceremonies as the
priest of the other two. The headman is known as Sard&r.

Similar distinctions appear under different names in the
Santfil Pargands, where the Ket Chhut&r are ordinary carpenters
working only in wood and making household furniture, palanquins,
and the like ; the Paturd are stone-outters ; the Nagare practise
turning ; and the Bhar-Chhut£r paroh and pound rice into churd .

The sections have been borrowed from the Brahmanical system,
and give no clue to the origin of the caste.
gamy gamy *** hyper ’ They are not invariably exogamous, and the
tendenoy seems to be for the Sutradhars of
Eastern Bengal to regard the gotra as a sort of titular distinction
and to regmate their marriages by the more modern system of
counting prohibited degrees. This at least is the case with two out

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289

SUTRADHAR.

of the three sub-castes found in Dacoa, while in Noakh&li the caste
is stated to have no sections at all. In Western Bengal, on the other
hand, the seotions are still intact, and three of them — Alamrishi, B&n-
rishi, and K&syapa — appear in that district to be clearly totemistio.
The Alamrishi will not eat, and even pay some sort of reverence to
the eel (aind), while members of the B&nrishi and K&syapa seotions
observe a similar tabbo in respect of the ban fish and the water-
tortoise. This ourious survival of primitive usage lends important
confirmation to Dr. Wise’s opinion that the caste is really of non-
Aryan descent. No regular system of hypergamy has yet been
developed among them, but the beginnings of one may perhaps be
discerned in the faot that families bearing the title of rar&m&nik
are held in special esteem, and are usually spoken of as Kulins.
Such families nave not as yet reached the point of refusing to give
their daughters in marriage to persons who are not Kulins, but a higher
bride-prioe is paid for Par&m&nik girls, and members of Par&m&nik
families are treated with special consideration at wedding and
funeral feasts. In Dacoa the Sdtradhars of Bikrampur affeot a high
degree of ceremonial purity, and demand a special bride-prioe on
giving their daughters in marriage to Sdtradhars coming from other
places. In the Bishanpur estate in Bankura the superior families
of Sdtradhar pay a small fee to the Baja of Bishanpur for the
privilege of calling themselves Kulins, and the Baja is supposed to
have the power of punishing a breach of caste custom by depriving
the offender of this ooveted distinction. No instanoe has come to
my notioe of this power being exercised in recent times, and the fee
still paid is doubtless a survived from days when the Bishanpur
family possessed considerable authority in Western Bengal.

Sdtradhars marry their daughters as infants by the standard
Marri&ra. Hindu oeremony, of which satpdk, or the

Marnag0 ‘ carrying of the bride seven times round the

bridegroom, is deemed to be the binding portion. A bride-price is
paid, which varies with the rank of the families ooncemed. Poly-
gamy is permitted, and there appear to be no theoretical objections
to a man having as many wives as he can afford to maintain.
Widows are not allowed to marry again, nor is divorce recognized.
Sexual indiscretions are nsually hushed up within the cirole of the
family in which they ocour ; but a woman whose infidelity gives rise
to publio scandal is summarily turned out of the caste, and ceases
thenoeforth to be a member of respectable society.

The great majority of the caste belong to the Yaishnava sect,
jkj. - olL but worshippers of the Saktis are also found

lfsm among them. Viswakarmd is regarded as their

patron deity, and sacrifices are offered to him on the last day of
Bh&dra and in M&gh Panchami. Images of the god are sometimes
made in the likeness of a white man with three eyes, wearing a
crown, and bearing a club in his right hand; but usually he is
represented by the tools whioh the worshipper uses in his trade.
These are set up inside the house and decorated with flowers, and
offerings are placed before them, while the god is besought to favour
his votaries on their profession during the ensuing year. Sutradhars

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8UTRADHAB.

290

SWIBI.

employ Brahmans for religions and oeremonial purposes, but these
Brahmans belong to the Bama class, and are not received on equal
terms by other members of the sacred order. The dead are burned,
and the ordinary srdddh ceremony is performed on the thirty-first
day after death.

The social rank of the Sdtradhar is low. Brahmans will not

Social status.

take water from their hands, and they may
be said to oocupy muoh the same position as
the Jugi, Sunri, and Dhobd. In Western Bengal the village
barber has no objection to shaving them, but he marks his sense
of their inferior status by declining to cut their toe nails or
0 .. touch their feet. Carpentry is believed to be

ocupa on. their original and characteristic profession, but

besides the occupations already enumerated, Sdtradhars are employed
in outting conch shells into bracelets, in making images of the gods,
and in painting religious pictures. In Murshedabad, indeed, this
last occupation seems likely to form the basis of a new sub-caste, for
I am informed that painters (Chitrakdr) do not intermarry with the
members of the caste who work as carpenters and shell-cutters. In
Noakhdli some Sdtradhars work as goldsmiths. Cultivating Sdtra-
dhars are usually oocupancy or non-occupancy raiyats. None of
them appear to have risen to be zamindars or tenure-holders : on the
other hand, very few have sunk to the position of landless day-
labourers.

The following statement shows the number and distribution
of Sdtradhars in 1872 and 1881

District.

1872.

1881.

Dibtsiot.

1872.

1881.

Bard wan

15,978

10,181

Jalpigori

831

Banknra

4,610

6,471

Kuch Behar

132

Birbhum

7,747

8.900

Dacca

15,907

15,295

Midnapur ...

10.586

14,784

Faridpnr

5,086

5,200

Hughli

4,667

Bakarganj H .

2,081

1,151

Howrah

> 5,108

1,794

Maimansmh

21,479

27,488

24-Parganis ...

8.274

1,467

Tipperah

11,804

1,526

Nadiya

9,126

9,420

Chittagong

1,828

2,464

Khulna

1,632

Noakhali M . ...

2,768

3,554

Jessore

10,644

12,071

Maid ah

2,1*9

2,757

11 urshedabad

10,070

9,673

Singbhum

842

881

Dinajpur

...

678

1,019

Manbhum

2,027

1,927

Bajshahye ...

4,558

1,066

Tributary States ...

112

Rangpur ...

2,326

2,220

Cuttack

210

Boera

1,569

1,567

Balasore

Pabna

• M

...

10,282

12,714

Tributary States ...

Darjiling

169

106

Sutrasdh i, a class of Baniyds in
Behar. See Suthrd 8aht.

Suwahong, the mendicant, a
sept of the Yangorup sub-tribe
of Limbus in Darjiling.

Suydl, a that or sept of Man-
gars in Darjiling.

Sw&in, a title of Chdsds in
Orissa.

Swarna-kausik, a section of
the Uttar-Bdrendra Brahmans in
Bengal.

Swdrtha, self-absorbed, a title
of Brahmans and Vaishnavas.

Swarupsing, a group of the
Fatehsing Telis in Murshedabad.

Swetbhadra, a pur or seotion of
Sdkadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Stcirt, a synonym for Savar.

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TABKAHILA.

291

TAMBRAKHOLA.

TabkAhila, a section of the
BiyAhut and KbaridAhA EthrAn
in Behar.

Tabkar, a section of the Dha-
prA sub-caste of Doms in Behar.

TAbria, a section of Mahesris
in Behar.

Tag-tog-pA, tag or brag, a
rook — a dweller on oliffs, a sub-
sept of the Nah-pd sept of
Sherpa Bhotias.

Tahalkid, a setion of Godlds
in the North-Western Provinoes
and Behar.

Taid, a sept of Rajputs in
Behar,

. & sopt of Limbus

in Darjiling.

Tailakdr , a synonym for Teli.

Tailangi or Andhra, a terri-
torial division of the Panoha
Drdvira Brahmans who live in
the south of the Vindhya range, a
country of the Telugu language.

Taili, a synonym for Teli.

Taingchait, a sept of Maghs
in the Hill Tracts of Chittagong.

Taipal, a synonym for Teli.

Tairan, a gotra or seotion of
Agarwdls.

Taitia, a sept of Ndgeswars
in Chota Nagpur.

Taitum, a sept of Mundas in
Chota Nagpur.

Taj yd, a title of Hindu Jold-
hds in JBehar.

Tajna, name of a river, a
totemistio sept of Chiks in Chota
Nagpur.

Takware-Ankusi, a mul of
the Bdtsya section of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar.

Takware-Nimd, a mul of the
Bdtsa seotion of Maithil Brah-
mans in Behar. '

Talabdti, a gdin of the Kdsya-
pa gotra of Rdrhi Brahmans' in
Bengal

TalahadAba, palm-tree, a
totemistio sept of J uAngs in
Onssa.

Tdldibond, a sub-oaste of
Doms in Bengal who make palm-
leaf mats.

Taldpdtra, bottom of a pot,
a title of Bdrendra Brahmans in
Bengal.

Tdlkdtd, a sub-oaste of Hfais
in Bengal who extract the juioe
from tal trees.

Tdlu, a thar or sept of Man-
gars in Darjiling.

Tamdg, a thar or sept of
Murmis in Darjiling. The term
is sometimes used to denote the
whole oaste.

Tamagandiyd, a seotion of
Turis in Behar.

Tdmdr, a sept of Rdjputs in
Behar.

Tamdriya,' Mura, or Mdnku
Mura, a sub-tribe of Bhumijs
originally settled in pargand
Tamdr of Lohardagd.

Tdmbd, copper, a sept of
Kharwars and Mundas in Chota
Nagpur.

Tdmberd, a sub-oaste of
Kaseras, braziers in Behar.

Tdmboli, a group of the Sri-
Gaura sub-caste of Gaura Brah-
mans.

Tdmbrakhola, a sub-tribe of
Limbus in Darjiling.

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TAMBULI.

292

‘STAtnbuli, Tdmuliy Tdmliy a respeotable trading caste of Bengal,
Orijnn Behar, and Orissa, whose onginal occupation

is supposed to have been the selling of betel-
leaf, Sanskrit tdmbuia. Tradition represents them as the descend-
ants of a Vaisya father and a Brahman mother, but this legend
clearly throws no light upon the true origin. It is possible that
they may be an offshoot from one of the trading castes, whose usages
have been transformed by contact with Brahmanical influences.
The Tdmbulis of Behar have no sections, and regulate their marriages
by the standard formula for reckoning prohibited degrees calculated
to six generations in the descending line for dhianid relations and
fourteen for deddi. In Bengal and Orissa the Brahmanical gotras
are in use, Yyasa being included among them. Instead, however, of
following the ordinary law of exogamy, the T&mbuli have a peculiar
system of their own, which depends partly on the gotra and partly on
the family name. Persons who belong to the same gotra are allowed
to marry provided they do not bear the same family name, and
persons of the same family name may marry if they belong to
different gotras . Where, however, both family name and gotra are
the same, the prohibition on intermarriage is absolute. Marriage
between sapinda » and samariodakas is also forbidden.

The T6mbulis of Bengal are divided into five sub-castes or thdks

internal .tructure. T^pt^mi oj KusadSye, Ashtagrfmi or
Kataki, Chauddagrami, Biy&llisgrami, and
Bardham&ni. The first-named say that they came from Northern
India, and that their chief settlement was at fcaptagrdm or 86tgaon,
where they numbered about 1,400 families. An outrage committed
on one of their maidens by the Mahomedan Governor of the place
induced them to leave S&tg&on in a body and settle at Kusadahd,
in the 24-Pargan$s, which they now regard as their head-
quarters in Bengal. A similar origin is claimed for the Biy&llis-
gr&mi, the largest of the five sub-castes, who are supposed to have
entered Bengal at a still earlier date. The Chauddagrami, which
is now reckoned the highest in rank, is said to owe its origin to
one Sashthibar Singh, a member of the Biy&llisgT^mi group, who
being turned out of his father’s house for marrying the daughter
of Srimanta P61, a T&muli of the Bardham6ni sub-caste, took

refuge with his father-in-law at Bainchi, in Hughli, and headed
a faotion of his own. Being a man of wealth and influence, he gained
over to his side several leading families, and thus formed the
nucleus of a new sub-caste, which comprised the T&mulis of fourteen
villages (chauddagrdvi). Some clue to the time when this took place
is given by the inscription on a temple at Bainchi, which shows it to
have been built by Gokul, the son of Sashthibar, in the Saka year

1504 = A.D. 1582. We may place the formation of the Chaudda-
gr&mi sub-caste some fifty years earlier. The Bardhamdni sub-caste
are supposed to have had their earliest settlement in the Bardwan
distriot, but they are now most numerous in Birbhum. The Ashta-
gr&mi profess to have come from Upper India at the same time as
the Saptagr&mi, but residence in Orissa has cut them off from the
rest of the caste, and their social rank is now comparatively low. The

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293

TAMBULI.

Behar sub-oastes are shown in Appendix I, and demand no special
notioe here.

T&mbulis marry their daughters as infants. The Asura form of
. marriage is in vogue, and the parents of the

^ bridegroom pay a bride-price, whioh varies

according to the status of the bride’s family. Kusandika forms
part of the ritual, but the essential and binding portion is believed
to be the formal gift of the bride and acceptance of her by the
bridegroom. Yellow silk is the proper bridal dress, but should
the family be poor a girl may be married in oottou dyed with
turmeric. Polygamy is permitted, and in theory a man may have as
many wives as he oan afford to maintain. Suoh indulgence, how-
ever, is rare, and I understand that few T&mbulis have more than one
wife. A man may marry two sisters, but he must follow the order of
a^e, and may not marry his wife’s elder sister. Divorce is not recog-
nized, and on the rare occasions when a public soandal occurs within
the caste the offending wife is turned out to shift for herself.
Widows are forbidden to marry again, and the custom of the caste
oompels them to lead a more strictly asoetio life than is usual among
the other castes of the Navas&kha. They are allowed only one meal
a day, of whioh neither flesh nor fish may form part, and they must
fast entirely twice a month. A Tamuli widow indeed is subject to
as severe ordinances of self-denied as a Brahman widow. These
asoetio doctrines, however, hold good only in Bengal and Orissa. In
Behar a widow may marry again, and is tied down by no special
restrictions in her choioe of a seoond husbaud, although it is deemed
right and proper for her to marry her deoeased husband’s younger
brother should suoh a relative exist. It deserves notioe that among
the Behar T&mulis the oeremony used at the marriage of a widow,
though called sagai , does not differ materially from that which is
performed when a virgin is married. In most oases where widow-
marriage is permitted, the ritual is extremely meagre, and usually
consists of little more than the smearing of red lead on the bride’s
forehead. Divoroe is effected with the sanction of the panchdyat,
but divoroed wives may not marry again.

The religion of the T&mbulis presents no features of special
. interest. Most members of the caste are

lgion. Vaishnavas, and comparatively few worship-

pers of the Saktis are found among them. They employ Brahmans
for religious and ceremonial purposes, who are reoeived on equal
terms by other members of the sacred order. Among the minor
gods recognized by the caste in Bengal may be mentioned the
sun and moon, to whom rice, plantains, eto., are offered occasion-
ally; Chandi, Lakshmi, Sashtm, and Manas6. In Behar Bandi
and Nar Singh are the favourite deities. The offerings presented
to them are wheaten cakes, sweetmeats, ourds, and plantains, whioh
are afterwards eaten by the members of the household. On the
Pumim& or full moon of Baisikh some T&mbulis set up inside
their houses a vessel of lime, some betel-leaves, and areca nut, with
the scissors (katdri and jdntx) used for cutting the leaf and nut, and
worship these as the emblems of their trade. The dead are burned,

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TAMBULI.

294

and the ddya or principal srdddhd performed on the thirty-first day
after death. Those who are well off make a point of taking some of
the ashes to the Ganges, but the poor merely throw mem into
the nearest stream or tank.

To prepare and sell betel-leaf, which they buy from the culti-
Oennnfiti vators, is believed to be the original occupation

orL of the caste, whioh they still adhere to in
Behar and Upper India, often adding thereto the business of a
pamdri or druggisi In Bengal, however, the TAmbulis have long
since abandoned this special business, and taken to dealing in grain
and petty shop-keeping. Some sell lime, others are employed as
gomashtas in large shops, a certain number hold land, and a few
are Government servants, pleaders, mukhtidrs , doctors, clerks in
merchants’ offioes, and schoolmasters. No TAmbuli will hold the
plough himself, and those members of the caste who have taken to
agriculture are zamindArs, tenure-holders, and occupancy raiyats
cultivating their lands by means of hired labour.

The social rank of the caste is respectable. They are usually

Social status. olassed among the NabasAkha, and in most

districts of Bengal Brahmans will take water
from their hands. On this point, however, there seems to be some
confliot both of ancient authority and of modem usage. The
couplet of ParAsara, whioh is usually cited as the locus classicus
defining the NabasAkh or Nava-SAyaka group, makes no mention
of the TAmbuli ; and although it is alleged that the caste is included
under the Teli, who also are descended from a Yaisya father and
a Brahman mother, this seems rather a foroed interpretation. On
the other hand the Brahma Vaivarta PurAna omits the Teli and
gives the TAmbuli a prominent place among the Sat-Sudras. So
the Brahmans of Bengal, while usually according to the TAmbuli
a place among the NavasAkha, do not invariably allow them the
privileges attaching to this position; and a TAmbuli gentleman, 1
to whom I am indebted for an excellent series of notes on the
caste, informs me that neither Brahmans nor Rajputs will take water
from their hands. TAmbulis will partake of cooked food with none
but members of their own sub.caste. Thus a ChauddagrAmi will eat
boiled rioe only with a ChauddagrAmi, and so on. Some, howevert
will eat the leavings of Brahmans. Their own rules regarding die,
are the same as are followed by most orthodox Hindus. Among
lawful animal food they admit goat’s flesh, venison, and all kinds of
fish ordinarily sold except the soaleless varieties known as pdngds 9
gorcha , and etd . Some also drink wine, but those who abstain from
both animal food and strong drink are deemed to follow a more
excellent path. In Behar, where less attention seems to be paid to
the dicta of writers of the Pauranio age, the TAmbuli rank with the
Koiri, and no question has arisen as to the propriety of Brahmans
taking water from their hands.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of
TAmbulis in Bengal Proper in 1872 and 1881. The figures for

1 Babu Shambu Chandra D6 y of Hughli, a member of the Chaudda-
gr&mi sub-caste.

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TAMBULI.

295

TANTI.

Behar, Orissa, and Chota Nagpur are included in the table on
Barais.

District.

1872.

1881.

District.

1872.

1881.

lliliuiltf

14,428

12,094

2,902

9,809

1 6,325

6,043
1,683
136

1,172

.13

410

6,311

16,097

3,554

11,682

i 8 ’ 4 2

l 1,896
1,651
1,802
444
281
732
648
201

Rangpur

Bogra

Patna

Darjiling ...

Jalpigon

Dacca

Farid pur

Bak&rganj

Uaimansinh

Chittagong

Noakhali ... .» ...

Tipperah ~

819

899

290

181

200

235

1,116

322

378

130

242

828

611

261

180

T&mg&in, a section of the
Biy&hut and Khariddhd Kalw&rs
in Behar.

Tamgarihar, a sept of
Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Tamghuria, a sept of Mundas
in Chota Nagpur.

Tdmiy a synonym for Ddmi.

Tdmliy a synonym for T6m-
buli.

Timr6, a sub-oaste of K&m&rs
in Midnapur.

Tdmuli, a synonym for T&m-
buli.

Tartdan, a section of the
Bdraj&ti sub-caste of Khatris in
Bengal.

T&ngbu&h, a thar or sept of
Khambus in Darjiling.

Tdngi, axe, a totemistio section
of Bautids in Chota Nagpur.

Tankol, a mul or section of
the NaomuliA or Goria sub-caste
of Go&las in Behar.

Tannahpurdi-Solhni, a mul
of the K&syap section of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar.

Tann&n, a sept of R&jputs in
Behar.

Tantrabaya, Tantubdya, Tatted, Tantwd , the weaver oast®
M . of Bengal and Behar, probably a functional

' gm group developed under the pressure of the

natural demand for woven doth. A oommon tradition represents
them as descended from Siva D&s or GMm D&s, who was bom from
the sweat (ghdm) that fell from Siva while he was danoing, and his
wife Kusbati, who was created by Siva from a blade of ku*a grass.
Siva Dds had four sons — Balar&m, Uddhab, Furandar, and Madhukar,
who were the ancestors of the four sub-castes bearing those names.
Another story recounted in the J&ti Kaumudi makes the oaste the
offspring of a Manibandha father and a Manik&r mother ; while
a third supposes that the T&ntis, in oommon with all the artisan
oastes, were begotten on a Sudra woman by the celestial artificer
Viswakarmi.

The internal divisions of the oaste are shown in a tabular form
T " , . . in Appendix I, and need only a brief notice

Internaletructur* We8tem Bengal the A Swini or

£.ngaL Asan-T &nti daiia to be the original stock, from

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TANTI.

296

which the other sub-castes have diverged. The women of this group
do not wear nose-rings, and this is regarded as a badge of social
distinction. The Aswini sub-oaste is very numerous, and has broken
up into five subordinate endogamous groups, whioh appear to derive
their names from particular localities. In the city of Dacca, says
Dr. Wise, the T&ntis have separated into two sreni or sub-castes, called
Bar4-bhagiy4 or Jh4mp4niya, from the jhdmpdn or sedan chair
in whioh the bridegroom sits when going to fetch the bride, aud
Chhot4-bhagiy£, consisting of K&yasths who on becoming weavers
were expelled from their caste. The former are about ten times as
numerous. They assume the title Basdk, whioh was originally taken
by rioh persons who had given up weaving and beoome cloth
merchants. A few titles inherited from their forefathers, who were
employed as weavers in the East India Company’s factory (aurang),
are still preserved. Among these J4ch a nd£r, appraiser; Muhkim,
supervisor; Da 141, broker; and Sard4r, head of a gang of
workmen, are the most common. Family nicknames are believed
to be oommoner among the Tantis than in any other caste, and
oertain households are oalled Mesha, sheep, and Chhagri, goat
The popular explanation of the names is that the ancestors of the
families accidentally killed these animals; but it seems at least
equally likely that they are totems, whioh have survived as family
titles. This view derives some support from the fact that among the
T&ntis of the SantAl Pargan&s the titles Lu, Chandra, P4I, Si I,
D4s, Datta, Nandi, Bit, and De, serve to denote exogamous groups.
In Mag Baz&r, a suburb of Dacca, there reside a peculiar subdivision
of outoaste Tantis belonging to a Magi Sreni who, though excom-
municated for the same reasons as the Magi Kumhars, oonform to
all the customs of the Stidra Tdnti.

According to Dr. Wise, the Chhot£-bhagiy&, or Kfiyath-
Tfintis, formerly goldsmiths, took to weaving as a more profitable
trade, and now eat with and visit the Basdks, although tne latter
do not reoiprocate the politeness. The richer families, having always
adopted the prerogatives of the Kdyasths, have been recognized, and
if wealthy receive wives from them. At present only from twenty
to twenty-five houses in Dacca are oooupied by them, and several
households work as goldsmiths, bankers, and engravers (Naqq&sh).

Dr. Wise mentions another olass of T&ntis, oalled Bang4-T antis,
settled in Eastern Bengal. These are quite distinot from the city
weavers, and claim to be the descendants of the original Tdntis of
Bengal, who supplied the people with cotton fabrics ior ages before
the reign of Jahangir. Although the superiority whioh they claim
over the Basdks is not oonceded, there can be little doubt that these
Bangi Tdntis were earlier settlers in Bengal than their rivals. The
BangA Tdntis are chiefly settled at DhAmrAi, an old town about
twenty miles north of Daooa, where they occupy about two hundred
and fifty houses. Their bridal dresses are white, and not of red
or other coloured silk, as is the oase with the Dacca weavers. They
manufacture the native sari and chadar, as well as doriyd and
nau-battl muslins, whioh are sent to Daoca to be embroidered. At
DhAmrAi the famous female spinners (Kdtani), who used to wind the

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fine native thread, were still to be found in 1873 ; but in 1885,
when Dr. Wise revisited Daooa, the art had died out. In illustration
of the delieate touch of these spinners, the story is told that one
of them wound eighty-eight yards of thread on a reel whioh only
weighed one rati or two grains. Now-a-days a rati of the finest
thread equals seventy yards, whioh proves that either a ooarser
ootton is grown, or that the women have lost their delioate sensibility
of touoh.

The Behar sub-castes of Tatw&s, as the caste is generally called
Behar. * n P rov i noe > need little comment. We

find among them the common territorial groups
Kanaujid and Tirhutid. The names Baisw4r& and Uttarh4
seem also to have reference to looality. Banaudhi& occurs among
some of the Baniy& castes ; uaisw&r is a common sub-oaste of the
Kurmis, while the names Cham&r-T&ntf and Kahar-T&ntf suggest,
what is in itself by no means improbable, that some members of
the Cham&r and Kab&r castes may have taken to the profession of
weaving, and thus formed new endogamous groups loosely affiliated
to the T&ntis. In Orissa there appear to be three sub-castes. The
M&tibans-T&nti weave coarse cloth from thread of English or
native manufacture. Many of them have deserted their charac-
teristic profession and become teachers in village sohools, assuming
therewith the titles Abadhan and Khetiputra. The G4l£-T4nti
weave fine cloth, and the Hansi-Tdnti make coloured doth of
various patterns.

Dr. Wise has the following remarks on the Behar TAntis
settled in Dacca : —

“ The Hindustani, or Mungfrya, weavers are very common in
Dacca, where they oomprehend a large proportion of the ‘ Mothids ’
or coolies, street porters, pank ha-pullers, gardeners, and packers of
jute ; while at home they are weavers and cultivators. Two divisions
are met with — the Kanaujiyi and Tirhutiyd ; the former, the more
numerous, being of higher rank than the latter, who are despised
and shut out from all sooial intercourse. The Tirhutiyi, degraded
by carrying palanquins and by acting as musioians at their homes,
collect in Dacca during the jute season, and are remarkable for their
squalor and stupidity. They also work as syoes, gardeners, boatmen,
and musicians.

The exogamous sections of the T&ntis are comparatively few
in number, and throw no light upon the origin of the oaste. In
Bengal the Brahmanical gotras have been adopted ; while in Behar
only three sections are known, and those do not appear to be
neoessarily exogamous. In Western Bengal prohibited degrees are
reokoned by the standard formula to three generations in the
descending line except where bhay&dy , or mutual recognition of family
events, is kept up. In that case the prohibition extends to seven
generations.

Except in Behar, where adult-marriage is still practised by the
Marriage P 00 . rer members of the caste, Tdntis marry

' their daughters before they have attained the
age of puberty. The bride-prioe usually demanded for a girl does

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not exoeed from Rs. 50 to Ha. 60, but it is deemed more respectable
for a man to give his daughter free of prioe. The marriage ceremony
is of the ordinary type, polygamy is recognized to the extent that
a man may take a second wife if the first proves barren. TAntis
are usually too poor to regard plurality of wives as a luxury.
Widow-marriage and divorce are forbidden in Bengal, while in
Behar widows may certainly marry again without any restrictions
being imposed on their ohoice, and the balanoe of authority seems on
the whole to incline to the opinion that divoroed wives may marry
again by the saga* form, which is used at the second marriage of
a widow. Others, again, say that divorce is not recognized : if a woman
goes wrong with an outsider, she is turned out of the caste ; but if
she has an intrigue with a TAnti, her fault is oondoned by the
headmen and her husband is compelled to take her back.* If the
bridegroom — elect of a widow has not been married before, he must
perform the ceremony of matkorwa in his own house, and must
smear vermilion on a sword or a piece of iron before going to take
his bride.

It should be mentioned here that instances are said to have
occurred of women belonging to lower castes, such as Teli, Turha,
and Gonrhi, being formally admitted into the TAnti caste. These
women had become the mistresses of TAnti men, and the latter,
having been exoommunioated on account of this discreditable
liaison, had afterwards prevailed on the panchdyat of the caste to
admit them and their mistresses to sooial rights on the condition
that a feast was given to the oaste and substantial presents offered
to the members of the pan oh Ay at. Men of other castes can on no
account be received in this fashion. In matters of inheritance, a
daughter’s son is exoluded by the nearest male relative of the
same kuh

The TAntis of Eastern Bengal are, says Dr. Wise—

“ With few exceptions, Yaishnavas, being probably the most
. obsequious disciples of the Khardah GosAins.

Kellgl0IL They have no panehdlt and no headman, but

the rioh guide and instruct their poorer brethren, while the trade
interests of the caste are seoured by the supervision of powerful Dais,
or guilds, presided over by a Dalpatl, or director.

“ The Dacca TAntis have always been celebrated for the magni-
ficent procession whioh parades the streets of the oity on the Jan-
mAshtaml, or birthday of their god Krishna, in BhAdra (August-
September). As long as a NawAb lived at Dacca, his troopers and
band led the pageant, and at the present day, though divested of
many of its attractions, it is still the most popular exhibition in
Eastern Bengal. For many generations the Dacoa weavers have
resided in two quarters of the city, TAnti BazAr and NawAbp&r, and
on the day following the birthday of Krishna a procession issues
from eaoh of these quarters and perambulates the streets. In 1853
the processions met, and a faction fight ensued. In 1855 the
Government ordered that for the future they should never be
permitted to oome out on the same day, and eaoh quarter, therefore,
takes precedence on alternate years, the peaoe of the oity having

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been so far assured. Krishna is worshipped by the TAntl BazAr
section under the form of Mural! Mohan ; by the NawAbpfir as the
SAligrAm, or Laksh! NArAyana. At the present dajr the processions
are preceded by a string of elephants, and a “ Panja,” or model of
a hand, presented by a former NawAb, is borne aloft, as at the
Muharram pageant. The peculiar part of the cavalcade, however,
are the “Misls,” or raised platforms, carried on men’s shoulders.
On these are placed images of Hindu gods, figures, and often
caricatures of local oelebrities. On others are NAch girls and
buffoons reoiting comic songs and bandying ohaff with the crowd.
In fact, the anniversary and the show have come to be regarded
as the occasion of a holiday, when thousands of villagers throng the
city bent on pleasure and amusement, whioh are more considered
than the deity in whose honour it is held.

“ The Banga TAntis observe with especial pomp the KAmadeva
PfijA, or worship of the Indian Cupid, which, though generally
neglected in Bengal and entirely omitted by the JhAmpAniya
TAntis, is still kept up in BhowAl, KAmrup, and the districts bordering
on that oountry. It is undoubtedly a worship of earlier origin than
that of Krishna. On the Madana Chaturdasl, or fourteenth day of
the waxing moon of Chait (March-April), the festival is held, but it
does not last for seven days as formerly. The purohit officiates, no
victims being sacrificed. The Banga TAntis, moreover, oelebrate the
JanmAshtami, but in a different way from the BasAk. Two boys
gorgeously dressed, representing Krishna and his foster-father,
Nanda Gopa, are oarried about in great state and with muoh
discordant noise. The Yisvakarma worship is observed on the usual
day, and, as with the BasAks, the loom, shuttle, and other imple-
ments of weaving are adored.”

In Western Bengal Yaishnavism is the characteristio belief of
the o&ste. Lakshinarayan-Chakra and RAdhA Krishna Bigraha
seem to be the commonest objects of worship. Beverenoe is also paid
to DurgA and Siva, but no sacrifices involving the taking of animal
life are offered to them. YiswakarmA is looked upon as the
tutelary deity of the oaste, and is worshipped twioe a year with
offerings of flowers, rice, molasses, etc., under the supervision of a
purohit , who recites appropriate texts. Images are sometimes made,
but more oommonly the weaver’s loom or some of the tools of the oraft
is regarded as the dwelling plaoe or symbol of the god. In the
SantAl ParganAs RangadhAri and JaikhA are mentioned among the
minor gods of the caste, but I have been unable to ascertain their
precise functions.

Among the TatwAs of Behar Yaishnavism appears to have made
but little way, and the majority of the caste are addicted to the
grosser cult of the Saktis, or female forms of the great gods. Thus
the KanaujiA sub-caste worship MahA-mAyA, or DurgA, and those
settled in Bengal keep the ninth and tenth days of the DurgA
Pfijah as holidays consecrated to her. On a oertain date in KArtik
they proceed to an open plain and saorifioe a male goat to KAli,
a khasi, or castrated goat, to Madhu KunwAr, who, they say, was
aTAnti. On the sixth day after a birth the chhafhi is held, and on

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300

the twelfth the mother goes to the well, smears red lead on the edge
in the name of KamalA (Lakshmi), then draws water and oarries it
within doors, when she is pronounoed olean.

KAli, DurgA, and MahAdeva are worshipped by the TirhutiA
sub-caste, but the majority follow the teaching of one Buddh RAm,
a Mochf of Tirhut, who founded a sect, differing in some slight
respects from that of NAnak ShAh. They observe few caste usages,
but many superstitious rites, such as burning ghi in a lamp and adding
resin, in execution of vows. Besides the regular minor gods of
Behar — Bandi GoraiyA, Dharamraj, and the rest — TatwAs worship
Sa isydr and Kdruchar, departed members of the caste, with sacrifices
of sheep and goats on Wednesdays and Saturdays in the month of
SrAwan. Brahmans do not preside at these animisitio rites, which
are performed by the male members of the household, with the object
of protecting themselves, their families, and cattle against the ill-
will of powerful spirits.

The TAntis of Bengal are served in religious and ceremonial
Priest®. matters by the Brahmans, who minister to the

spiritual wants of the Nava-SAkha group.
These Brahmans occupy at the present day a highly respectable
position, and although some of the most seleot Brahmans affect to
look down upon them as Sudra-jajak , high caste Kulins are willing
to marry their daughters ; and it may be affirmed on the whole that
they are reoeived on equal terms by other members of the sacred
order.

In Behar a very different state of things prevails, which seems
to indicate that the caste may have been developed locally at a
comparatively later date, and may be composed to a great extent of
non-Aryan elements. In many places Tatwas have no Brahmans at
all, and their place is supplied either by members of the caste who
have joined some religious order, or by the sister's son ( bhdnjd ) of the
person at whose instance, or for whose benefit, a particular religious
office is performed. In either case, notwithstanding the ignorance of
the person selected as priest, the title of Brahman is conferred upon
him, and he is treated with extreme deference. These primitive
methods of satisfying the religious needs of the caste seem, however,
to be tending to die out, and Tatwas, like other low castes, are
beginning to set up Brahmans of their own, usually low KanaujiAs
or Maithils, who are not looked upon as a credit to the priestly order.
Both in Bengal and Behar the caste burn their dead and perform
a funeral ceremony modelled more or less on the observances of the
higher castes. But by the Tatwas of Behar this ceremony is
performed on the thirteenth day after death, while the Bengal TAntis,
following orthodox Sudra usage, observe the thirty-first day.

Although the caste holds a degraded position in Behar, and
Brahmans will not take water from their hands,

Social status. the TAntis have had sufficient influence in
Bengal to raise themselves to the grade of clean Sudras, and take
undisputed rank in the Nava-sAkha group. The purity of a TAnti
depends on the quality of the starch used in weaving. The Sfidra
weaver prepares starch from parohed rice boiled in water, or kdi.

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which is not, aooording to Hindu ideas, ento or, as it is ealled in
Behar, jhiithd i, leavings. Impure weavers, as the Jugis, make starch
(mar) by merely boiling rice— a process whioh is considered utterly
abominable. The rules observed in matters of diet bear, as is usual,
some relation to the social status of the caste. The Bengal T&ntis
abstain, or affect to abstain, from flesh and strong drink, and claim to
be superior in these respects to other Nava-sdkha castes. In Behar
flesh and wine are deemed lawful for Tatwas, and whenever spirits
are drunk a few drops are poured forth as an offering to Mahadeva.
Tatwas, again, take both kachhi and pakki articles of food from the
Gangota, the Barai, and generally the entire group of castes from
whose hands a Brahman can take water.

Although Tdntis admit weaving to be their immemorial profes-
sion, many of them have of late years been
upation. driven by the influx of cheap machine-made
goods to betake themselves to agriculture. These cultivating Tdntis
are for the most part occupancy raiyats, or small tenure-holders, but
in the Murshedabad district a member of the caste owns the zamiu-
dari right in a large property. It is difficult or impossible to say
with any approaoh to aoouraoy what proportion of the caste have
abandoned their original craft in favour of trade or agriculture. The
Uttarkul Tdntis of Western Bengal have on the whole adhered to
weaving, and it is popularly believed that their comparative poverty
is mainly due to their attachment to the traditional occupation of the
caste. Among the Aswini and Maridli about one-third are supposed
to have given up weaving and settled down as regular cultivators.
Some minor differences among weaving Tdntis deserve a passing
notice. The Uttarkul sub-caste weave only cotton doth, and the
Mdridli only silk, while the Aswini make either cotton or silk goods.

, Aooording to Dr. Wise, five different sorts of cloth were
manufactured by the Daoca Tdntis in their palmy days, but
the art of making the finer qualities has been lost. The five
varieties were —

1. Malmal Muslins of the first quality included the

Abrawdn, 1 Tamil , and Malmal made of Desi (country)
cotton or Kapds ; of the second quality were the Shabnam y
Khasah , Jhuna, Sarkdr 9 Ali , Ganga Jal , and Terindam ; 2

. of the third were the coarser muslins, collectively called
Bdfftahy comprising 1 Tammam, Dimti ( ? Dimydtt), San ,
Jangal Khamh , and Qald-band.

2. Doriyd , striped and ribbed muslin, such as Bdj-kot,

Dakhan, Pddshdhi-ddr, Kunti-ddr, Kaghazf, and Keldpdf.

1 Abrawdn, literally rnnning water, was solely made for the Delhi zand-
nah, and the following stories regarding its gossamer-like texture are still told
by the natives. A daughter of Aurangzib, one day on entering the room, was
rebuked for wearing immodest drapery, but justified her conduct on the plea
that she was wearing seven suits (Jdmd). Again, in the reign of ’All Yard!
Khan (1742—56), a Dacca Tdntl was flogged and banished from the city for not
preventing his cow from eating up a web of Abrawdn which had been laid out
to bleach on the grass.

8 Probably from Arabic tarah , ‘mode, 9 and Persian anddm , * figure/

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302

3. Ckar-Khanah, checkered muslins, such as Nandanshahi,

Andr-ddna, Kabutar-khopi , Sd-Kuttd, Bachhd-dar , and
Kuntt-dar.

4. Jdmddnl , by the early European traders oalled Nain-

mkah, 1 or embroidered muslins. The different sorts
are distinguished by the coloured flowers, sprigs, biiti,
or network pattern on them. The commonest are
Shdhbarga-biiti , Chawal , Mel, Tirchhd , and Dublljal .

5. Kashida , or Chilean , muslins embroidered with Mfigd, or

Tasar silk generally dyed red, blue, or yellow. The
oommoner ones are Katdw-Rumi, Naubatti or Naubati 9
Yahudl, Azizullah , and Samundar Lahar .

The oommon Dhoti, Chadar, and Orhni, or wrapper with a
coloured or embroidered end, were always regarded as distinct from
the foregoing, being woven at their homes by weavers of various
castes.

On glanoing over the preceding list one is struck by the predom-
inance of Arabio, Persian, and Hindi words, and the rarity of
Sanskrit and Bengali. That weaving, like other Native arts, was
known in Hindustan prior to the foundation of the Bengal king-
dom is beyond a doubt, 3 and that the earlier settlers brought it with
them into the Delta is likely; but it would seem that either the
names given by the dominant Muhamadans displaced the native
ones, or that the liberal Mussulm&n rulers stimulated — it may be
developed— the manufacture of the finer sorts of muslins. That the
inhabitants of Bengal at an early period made cotton doth of
wondrous fineness is undoubted, for the two Muhamadan travel-
lers of the ninth century mention that in an Indian country called
Rahmi 3 were woven cotton garments “so fine that they may be
drawn through a ring of middling size.” Unfortunately we possess
no further evidence until A.D. 1506, three hundred years after
the Muhamadan oonquest, when the Roman Yartomannus 4 visited
the fabled city of Bengalla, where the finest ootton and silk in all
the world were produoed, and whenoe yearly sailed fifty ships
laden with ootton and silk goods. The earliest traveller, however,
who gives us the names of the fine cotton fabrics of Bengal is
the Arab author of the “Muhlt,” written in 1554. 6 He mentions
among the goods exported from Chittagong by his countrymen a fine
cloth (Chautdr) , muslin sashes called Malmal , the finest being known
as Malmali Sh&hf, terms which are Hindi and Persian. Furthermore,
when CaBsar Frederick visited Chittagong (1563-81), “ bombast doth
of every sort ” was exported thence. After his day the authorities

1 Nayana-sukha, pleasing to the eye.

3 It is referred to in the Rig and Atharva Vedas . See Zimmer Altind.
Leben, p. 254.— JEL H. It.

8 Bahmi, however, may not be Bengal, but as it was the country of ele-
phants, of a shell currency, and of the “ Earkandan,” or unicorn (rhinoceros),
the assumption is not altogether groundless.— Elliot’s History of India, vol. i,
361.

4 Ludovici Vartomanni Navigation p. 259.

5 Journal A . S. of Bengal, vol. v, 467.

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are numerous, and names identical with those in use in the present
day are cited.

The conjecture that the Muhamadans merely developed an
already flourishing trade is strengthened by the fact that the terms
in use by the Dacca weavers for the warp, woof, shuttle, and loom
generally are Sanskrit, while later improvements, such as the shAna
or reed, the oharkhA or spinning wheel, and the dafti or reed frame,
are Persian.

The decline of the cotton trade of Eastern Bengal has been
sketched by a former resident of Dacca, Mr. James Taylor, r while
muoh curious information is contained in Mr. Bolts' Consider-
ations and in the works of Edmund Burke. Under the Mughal
Government, and even as late as the NawAbship of ’All Yard! KhAn
(1742-56), the weavers manufactured in perfect liberty, and the
enterprising among them advanced money to promote the trade,
but with Sir4j-ud-daulah (1756-7) the decadence began, and during
his eventful reign seven hundred families of weavers left their
homes at JangalbAri, in Maimansinh, owing to oppression, and
emigrated to other districts. Before 1765, when the English obtained
the DfwAni of Bengal, bullion was regularly imported from Europe
to meet the requirements of the traders, but after that, day advances
were made from the provincial treasuries to buy the annual or
“investment.” This gave a new and unprecedented stimulus to
weaving, and in 1787, the most prosperous year on reoord, the
estimated prime cost of the cloths entered at the custom house
of Dacca amounted to fifty lakhs of rupees, or 625,000/. This pros-
perity, however, was very deceptive, being founded on injustice and
intolerable oppression. The first decline may be traced to the rapacity
of the “ banyans ” and gomastas, who arbitrarily decided the quantity
of goods each weaver was to deliver, the prices he was to reoeive,
while his name being entered on a register, he was not permitted to
work for any one but his own gomasta. When the annual supply
was ready the gomasta held a bazAr, at whioh the jAchandAr, or
appraiser, fixed the price of the goods, but the rascality, Mr. Bolts
says, 8 was beyond imagination, and the prices were often fifteen
per cent., often forty, below the market rate.

The deplorable condition of the weavers in 1773 is depicted in
the following extract from a letter written by Mr. Bouse, the Chief
of Dacca 5 : — “ The weavers are in general a timid, helpless people,
many of them poor to the utmost degree of wretchedness, incapable
of keeping accounts, industrious as it were by instinct, imuKp, to
defend themselves if oppressed, and satisfied if with continual labour
they derive from the fair dealing and humanity of their employer
a moderate subsistence for their families.”

The following incident that occurred in 1767 gives a vivid idea
of the state of matters in Daooa at that period. Mr. Thomas

1 A Descriptive and Historical Account qf the Cotton Manufacture of
Dacca, in Bengal. By A Former Besident of Dacca. London. 1861.
s Considerations , part i, 193.

* Burkes Works, Bohn ’ b edition, iv, 73.

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TAPAEE.

Chief of Daooa, being informed that a oertain weaver, Krishna Pdl
Kumdr, was suspected of selling muslins to the French factory,
ordered him to do seized, but he found shelter with the French.
His relatives, however, were imprisoned and beaten, and their
houses pillaged. Upon this the weaver gave himself up to the
Dfw&n, Bhikam Ldl Th&kur, who ordered him to be flogged, after
whioh he was oonfined in the factory for eleven days, during whioh
time the peons fleeced him of forty-nine rupees and two pieces of
cloth. By Mr. Kelsall’s order his head was shaved, his faoe black-
ened “ with lime and ink/' and being mounted on an ox, he was
paraded through Nawdbpfir, where the brokers and Paikars lived.
After three more days the aooused was forwarded to the Nawdb for
trial, who, finding no fault, discharged him.

This hateful system was at last swept away, and the weavers for
a short time enjoyed comparative freedom of trade and unusual pros-
perity ; but in 1769 Arkwright obtained his patent, in 1779 Crompton
invented the mule, and the cotton manufactures of Lancashire have
gradually driven the finer and less durable fabrics of the Bengali
weavers out of the market, and all but annihilated the trade.”

The following statement shows the number and distribution of
Tdntis in 1872 and 1881

District.

1872.

1881.

District.

1872.

1881.

Bard wan

Hankura

Birbhum

Midnapur

Hughli

Howrah

24>Pargan&s

Nadiya

Khulna

Jessore

Murshedabad

Dinaipur

Rajahahye

Rangpur j

Bogra !

Pabna

Darjiling

Jalpigon

Kuch Behar

Dacca

Faridpur

Bakarganj

Mnimansinh

Tipperah

46,647

16,610

16,761

100,317

j 38,079

19,676

9,418

10,760

17,409

12,800

822

3,235

1,801

4,059

644

4,034

8,906

3,410

1,876

7,302

1,792

20,913

29.304
15,962
97,720

f 29,647
l 14,260
8,129
6,806
2,694
10,349
19,814
9,093
1,615
4,553
1,660
4,110
428
6,463
1,437
10,687

3.304
1.327
8,430
1,640

Chittagong

Noakhali

Patna

Gya

Shahabad

*^{SB£JS r :::

Saran

Cliamparan

Monghyr

Bhagalpur

Purniah

Maldah

Sant&l ParganAs

Cuttack

Puri

Balasore

Tributary States

Hasaribagh

Lohardagi ...

Singbhum

Manbhum

Tributary States

2,799

1,273

12,958

6,894

8,166

} 82,496

4,806

11.496

86,202

63,037

85,307

16,360

4,666

37,822

14,154

38,460

13,706

641

6,837

20,758

13,961

4,894
1,326
18,802
6.744
10,388
< 66,666
l 90,913
10,826
21,186
87,268
5b, 884
29,273
6,503
10,949
38.790
14,215
40,046
19,947
854
11,340
21,260
12,243
6,121

Tanti, a synonym for Jolhd
and Pdn.

T&nti-Mahili, a sub-caste of
M&hilis in Manbhum who carry
palanquins.

Tdntid, a section of Godlds in
the North-Western Provinces
and Behar.

Tantrabdiy a synonym for T&nti.

Tantrabaya, a synonym for
Tdnti.

Tantubaya, a synonym for
Tdnti.

Tdnuri, a gdin of the Bdtsya
gotra of Bdrendra Brahmans in
Bengal.

Tapaer, a seotion of Mahilis
in Chota Nagpur.

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305

TELL

Tapaepati, “ Master of Pen-
anoe,” a title of religious men-
dicants.

Terri, an up-oountry

caste.

Tarat, a sub-section of the
Bharadwaja section of TJtkal
Brahmans.

TAri, a tnul or section of the
ChhamuliA MadhesiA sub-caste of
HalwAis in Behar.

TAriAl, a gain of the BAtsya
gotra of BArendra Brahmans in
Bengal.

TariyA, a section of Saraogis
in Behar.

Tarkanyark, a pur or section
of SAkadwipi Brahmans in
Behar.

TAroAIA Bisi, a gdin of the
SAndilya gotra of BArendra Brah-
mans in Bengal.

TArsi, a mul or section of
KasarwAni Baniyas in Behar.

TArsuriya, a sub-caste of
PAsis in Behar.

TArtar ke khirpuri, a section
of the BiyAhut and KharidAhA
KalwArs in Behar.

TarwAr, a sept of the Sur-
yabansi sub-tribe of BA j puts in
Behar ; a totemistio sept of
Mundas in Chota Nagpur who
cannot touch a sword.

TArzukmung, a sept of Lep-
ohas in Darjiling.

Tatia, a kind of bird, a totem-
istio sept of Mundas in Chota
Nagpur.

TAtoAr, a gdin of the SAbarna
gotra of BArendra Brahmans in
Bengal.

Tatwd, a synonym for JolhA
and TAntL

a weaving caste in
Behar, who apply caterpillars to
trees for cocoons from whioh taxar
silk is made. See Tdntu

Taulika , a synonym for Teli.

Taulo, earthen-pot, a title of
BArendra Brahmans in Bengal.

Taunr» a sept of BAjputs in
Behar.

Taw, a sept of the Patar sub-
tribe of Mahilis in Chota Nagpur.

TAyaJ, a gotra or section of
AgarwAls.

Tej, a title of Dakshin-BArhi
and Bangaja KAyasths.

TejaniA, a section of SonArs
in Behar.

T ek BArA, a sub-caste of Gaura
Brahmans.

TekhA, a sept of the Chan-
drabansi division of RAjputs in
Behar.

Tela, aseotionof Mahesris in
Behar.

TelgA, a section of EhariAs in
Chota Nagpur.

TelhA, a sept of BinjhiAs in
Chota Nagpur who use oil at
marriage.

Telhari, a group of Maghaiya
Telis in Behar.

Taili, Tailika, Tailakdr, Tailpal, Kalu, a large oil-press-
ing and trading caste of Bengal, Behar, and Orissa. Their original
profession was probably oil-pressing, and the caste may be regarded

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306

as a funotion&I group reoruited from the respectable middle class of
Hindu sooiety. Oil is used by all Hindus for domestic and cere-
monial purposes, and its manufacture could only be carried on by
men whose social purity was beyond dispute.

The Telis of Bengal have a variety of traditions, mostly of the
m , . . mythological type, which are interesting for

onao ongm. their attempt to account for the origin and
comparative status of some of the main divisions of the caste.
The creation of the first Teli is asoribed to the god Siva, who,
being of a mind to rub himself after bathing with oil instead
of with the wood ashes, which he generally used, made from the
sweat of his arm a man named Rupn&r&yan Teli or Manohar P&l,
and inspired him with the idea of an oil-mill (g/iani). Some say
that the original oil- mill was turned by two bullocks without
blinkers, and that the Kalus were degraded for using one bullock only
and blinding its eyes with blinkers. Another legend bearing on
the same point is the following : — In the beginning of time the
goddess Bhagavati made two men out of turmeric paste and ordered
them to bring her oil. One came baok very soon with a pot of oil ;
the other took much longer. When the goddess asked the reason of
the delay, the latter explained that he had to soak up the oil with
a bit of rag and squeeze it into a pot, while the former had stolen
a march on him by using a mill with a hole at the bottom, through
which the oil trickled out. On hearing this the goddess was much
offended at the idea that she had used oil procured by a process
resembling one of the baser functions of the human body, and
condemned the more inventive of the two oilmen to pay the penalty
of his ingenuity by being degraded to a lower caste. It would be
quite in keeping with other cases of the growth of sub-castes that the
Xalus should have been separated from the parent caste by reason of
their having introduced an improvement in the primitive oil-mill ;
and the myth of Bhagavati’s anger may well have arisen to account
for their separation and for the lower social status assigned to them.
There are, for example, two outcaste classes of oilmen in Eastern
Bengal, who have been excommunicated because they manufacture
oil in a novel manner: the first, or G&chhu& Teli, express the oil
by crushing the seed between wooden rollers; the second, or Bhunjd
Telf, parch the seed and then extract the oil. I do not know
whether these groups have as yet started myths connecting their
degradation with the displeasure of a god ; but it is reasonable to
expect that some such legend should in course of time be evolved.

Concerning the origin of the sub-castes which bear the curious
T . nal cf yn/^+nm names of Ek&das and Dwadas Teli an in-

teresting legend is current. The father of all
the Telis, it is said, was Manohar Pdl, a beopdri or hawker who
travelled about selling various wares. He had two wives. While
he was away on a journey, a rumour reached his home that he
was dead. Thereupon the elder wife broke her ornaments and
performed the rites appointed for a widow, but the younger wife
disbelieved the tale. In fact Manohar Pal was not dead, and
returned home after a few days. From the two wives sprang the

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TELI.

two sub-oastes in question. The Ekadas Teli are the desoeudants of
the elder wife, and the Dw&das Teli of the younger. In memory of
the elder wife breaking her ornaments on hearing of her husband’s
death, the Ek&das women do not wear nose-rings and do not tattoo
their foreheads and arms. Eaoh group olahns preoedenoe over the
other. The Ek&das are of course the elder branch, and it is alleged
that they represent the original stock of the Teli caste, which is stated
in the list given in the Brahma-Yaivartta Purina to be derived from
a Kumh&r (potter) father and a mother of the builder caste, Kotak or
Ghar&mi. It stands eleventh on the list, and this is the reason for
the name Ekadas. The Dw&das Teli in their turn, while admitting
the descent of the Ek&das from the elder wife of the founder of the
caste, alleged that they have forfeited the preoedenoe they might
otherwise claim by submitting to be governed by Param&niks in all
matters relating to caste, and by sending women of the bride’s family
to accompany her on her first visit after marriage to her husband’s
house. Another queer custom of the Ek&das group forbids them
to wear moustaches, but English education is said to be breaking
this down.

The Ghan&j Gh&ni, or G&chhu4 Telis work an oil-mill of
primitive pattern. This machine has no hole for the removal of the
oil, whioh has to be soaked up with a bit of rag tied on to a stiok
The Kalu, as has been explained above, use a mill with a hole to let
out the oil. The status of the latter is very low, and their separa*
tion from the main body of the Telis is so complete that many
regard them as a separate caste.

In Eastern Bengal, according to Dr. Wise, there are two
great subdivisions of this caste : the Tail-pell, or Martohar PAI, and
the Teli, the former being the rioher and more numerous. The
Tail-p&l arefrequently distinguished by the epithet Do-patti, from
having adopted the Sudra marriage custom of carrying the bride and
bridegroom on stools. The Teli, again, are known as Ekg&ohhi,
from their planting a champa- tree, on which the bridegroom sits
while the bride is carried round him several times, as is the custom
with the Gaudhabaniks.

Originally, it is said there were no divisions, and all oilmen
belonged to one caste, but in oourse of time, as wealth accumulated
in their hands, the richer families, ashamed of their ancestral occu-
pation, have adopted a new name to conceal their parentage. Thus
in the district of Central Bengal Telis who have grown rioh call
themselves Tilfs, and affeot to be of a higher lineage than the Telis,
although they still retain the old family titles. Wealth and pros-
perity have made them give up the manufacture of oil, and led them
to become Amdaw&l&h, or traders buying goods wholesale and sell*
ing them by retail. Some go the length of saying that Tili is
a caste wholly distinct from Teli, but 1 doubt whether the prooess
of separation has as yet gone so far as this.

In the northern parts of the Dacoa district, beyond the limits of
the oountry affected by the reforms of Ball&l Sen, the oilman caste
has hypergamous divisions, which are said to vary in almost every
pargana. In Baipura, for example, there are four classes of this sort—

* 2

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308

the Satrah, or seventeen families; the BAis, or twenty- two ; the
Chaubis, or twenty- four ; and the Ch&r, or four — each taking rank
in the order named* These differ from the standard Kulin group-
ing in that the oompetition is for wives, not husbands. Girls may
marry in a class below their own, and large dowries are given by the
three lower groups for wives belonging to the first class.

In Dacca city at the time of Dr. Wise’s researches the Tail-pils
Marriage. aud Tells used to intermarry, and were regard-

ed as olean Sudras. The gotras common to both
were Aliman, §&ndily&, and Kdsyapa. In addition to the well-
known Padavis, or family surnames, of P&l, Nandi, D4, and Kundu,
Chaudhari, and Shikdar, honorary titles bestowed by the native

S ovemment were common among them, while the headman was styled
[andaL In former days their unions (dais) were notorious for
the faction fights which broke out whenever differences of opinion
were expressed. No dal existed in Dr. Wise’s time, but the Mandal
used to summon a panchdyat when required.

The marriage arrangements of the Telis of Bengal are oast
in the orthodox mould, and the attempt is to approaoh as closely
as possible to the example furnished by the higher oastes. The
sections which regulate marriage are of the eponymous type ;
infant-marriage is fully established, and the marriage ceremony
is in general conformity with the ritual prescribed in the Hindu
soriptures. Widows may not marry again, and divorce is not
reoognized.

In other parts of the country the influence of orthodox tradition
has been less powerful, and the aspirations of the caste are more
modest. In Bebar their seotions belong to the titular or territorial
types, while among the Tells of Chota Nagpur and Orissa totems
are still held in reverence and regulate the intermarriage of members
of the caste. Infant-marriage, though more usual than adult-
marriage, is not reckoned absolutely essential; widow-marriage is
permitted, the widow being usually expected to marry her deceased
husband’s younger brother. Divoroe is reoognized, and divorced
women are permitted to marry again.

In Bengal almost all Telis are Yaishnavas. Their principal
Religion. festivals are those in honour of Lakshmi,

Saraswati, and Gandheswari, the last being
celebrated at the Dasahara in Aswin (September-October) and not
on the full moon of Bais&kh (April-May), as is the custom of the
Gandhabanik caste. They employ as their priests Rdrhi Brahmans,
who are received on terms of equality by the Brahmans who minister
to the spiritual wants of the higher castes. The Brahmans who serve
the Kalus, on the other hand, are generally looked down upon, and
ocoupy a position hardly higher than that of the degraded Brahmans
who are the priests of the Kaibartta caste.

In Behar the worship of VishDu does not appear to be a speoial
characteristic of the Telis, and the worship of the minor deities
seems to hold a more prominent position than is the case in Bengal.
Among these the Kanaujia Telis pay especial reverence to the Fanoh
Fir and Goraya, while the Magahiyd sub-caste is more addicted to

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TELI.

the oult of Kalihandi, Jalpait, and Dharam Rij. To these rural
divinities the former offer khirpuri sweetmeats and bread made
of seven kinds of grain on Wednesdays during the iight half of the
month of Asin, while the latter observe a similar ritual on the
same day during the light half of S&wan and M&gh. If a vow is
made or a special boon solicited from the god. a more sumptuous
offering is needed, and in suoh oases the Maghayd Telis usually
sacrifice a goat. Ou Tuesdays during the light half of S&wan, the
KanaujiA Telis offer a sucking pig to Goraya. After the blood
of the victim has been poured forth on the ground before the
lump of dried mud whioh symbolises the presence of the god,
the body is either buried under ground or given to a Dos&dh, whose
religious scruples do not deter him from a savoury meal. The
practice may also be accounted for by the supposition, in itself by no
means improbable, that the Doe&dhs, like the Layas and Bhuiyas
in Western Bengal, were generally recognized as the hereditary
priests of the more primitive deities, and in that capacity were
entitled to claim the offerings as their legitimate perquisite. An
inferior class of Brahmans, spoken of contemptuously as “ Tel-
B&bhan,” serve the Teli as priests.

In Eastern Bengal, according to Dr. Wise, the pure Telis only
extraot til oil from the sesamum seed, and caste is forfeited if any
other oil be manufactured. The ghdni , or oil-mill driven by
bullocks, is never used, the oil being prepared in the following
manner : The seeds are boiled and given to the Muhamadan Kuti
to husk. After being sifted, the Teli puts them into large vats
( jald ), boiling water being poured in, and the seeds allowed to soak
for twelve hours. In the morning the liquid is beaten with bamboo
paddles (ghotna) and left to settle, when the oil floating on the surface
is skimmed off and stored, no attempts to purify it being made.
The refuse (khali) is given to cattle.

The social standing of the Telis differs in different parts of the
g. country and for different sub-castes. In

g m Bengal, for example, the higher sub-castes

of Telis, who have abandoned the oil trade and beoome bankers,
money-lenders, cloth-dealers, and shop-keepers, take rank among the
Nava-S&kha, or nine castes (now in faot fourteen) from whose hands
a Brahman may take water, while the Kalus, or working oil men,
are included in a lower groun along uith the Sutradhar, the Sundi,
and the Eap&li. In Behar the entire caste seems to stand on this
lower level, and no Brahman will take water from their hands.

Dr. Wise mentions that Krishna Kanta Nandi, better known as
K&nta Babu, the banyan of Warren Hastings, was a Teli by
caste, and did much to raise its position among the Hindus. On
visiting Jaggan&th he offered to provide an atka or assignment of
land for the maintenance of the poor, but the Panda , or presiding
priest, refused to accept it from the hands of suoh an unworthy
person. Against this decision K&nta Babu successfully appealed to
the Pandits of Nadiyd and Hughli, who held that the Teli, by using
the balanoe Tula in his trade, must necessarily belong to the BaniA,
a dean Sudra caste. E&nta Babu died in 1780. He is said to have

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310

TENSHABA.

introduced the noth , or nose-ring, among the females of his caste,
an ornament previously worn only by Brahmans and the higher
Sudras. The present representative of his family, Mah&r&ni
Samamayi of K&simb&z&r, is renowned for her munificent support
of public and private oharities, and her zealous efforts to further
the intellectual advance of her oountrymen and countrywomen.^

The following statement shows the number and distribution of
Telis in 1872 and 1881

District.

1672.

1881.

District.

1872.

1881.

Bard wan ... _

Bankura

Birbhum

Midnapur

Hughli

Howrah

24-ParganAs

Nadiya

Jesaore

Khulna

Murshedabad

Dinaipur

Rajshahye

Rangpur

Bogra

Pabna

Darjiling

Jalpigori ...

Koch Behar ...

Dacca

Faridpur

Bakarganj

Iflaimansinh ... ... •••

Chittagong

1*8,275

64,386

80,867

76,240

} 89,956

82,903

80,119

21,443

89,189

6,055

8,060

8,162

1,946

10,604

412

2,728

18,711

7,818

12,184

7,814

4,063

51,199
95.435
27,926
77,339
C 47,038
( 15,492
29,896
32,335
14,280
7,742
20.730
6,044
6,929
8,379
2,740
10,272
903
2,471
504
16,201
14,490
7,280
9,718
*031

Noakhali

Tipperah

Chittagong Hill Tracts ...
Patna ...

Gya

Shahabad

Mozaffarpur —

Darbhanga

Saran

Cbamparan

Monghyr

Bh&galpur

Purnian

Maldah

SantAl Parganis

Cuttack

Puri

Balasore

Tributary 8tates

Hasaribagb

Lohardagi

Singbhum ...

Manbhum

Tributary States

2,954

4,914

* 47,509

50.701

41,440

| 136.208

} 65,138
42,916
62,765
64,103

88.701
17,949
27,954
62,173
86,839
37,740
42,476
29,876
24.427

8,904

83,072

3,026

4,489

6,698

62,880

57,379

47.836
f 82,856
l 79,444

63,087

52,842

66,632

66,946

88,136

11,874

35.915
68,669

88.916
43,200
60,283
42,319

32.836
4,110

82,382

6,227

Telia, a tree, a totemistic sept
of Mundas in Ohota Nagpur.

Telii-Nagasii, a sub-tribe of
Nageswars who use oil instead of
sindur at marriage.

Teli Ban i yd, a sub-caste of
Baniy&s in Behar.

Teligdmia, a group of the
Mihtar sub-caste of Telis in
Behar.

Teli ha, a section of Kamar-
kolla Son&rs in Behar.

Tellng, the worker in cane, a
sept of the Chhothar sub-tribe of
limbus in Darjiling.

TOttS*, a small caste found
in Bankura and believed to be

the descendants of certain sepoys
imported from Madras in the last
century by one of the Rajas of
Bishenpur. Curiously enough,
they have adopted the totemistio
sections used by the Bagdis and
Bauris of Western Bengal.

Temdih, a mul or section of
the Naomalia or Majraut sub-
caste of Gtoalas in Behar.

Temrakoti, a thar or seotion
of Nep&li Brahmans.

Tendun, a sept of R&jputs in
Behar.

Tengri, a section of Binjhiis
in Chota Nagpur.

Tensh&ba, a bird, a totemis-
tic sept of Juings in Orissa.

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TENTTJLIA.

311

THAPANGI.

Tentulid, a seotion of Pdtnis
in Behar.

Tentulid, Tetuli , a sub- caste of
Bdgdis in Bengal, named after
the tamarind tree, and apparently
totemistic.

Teor, a sub- caste of B&gdis in
Bengal and of Kaibarttas who still
serve as fishermen and boatmen.

Tera-Haxdr or Birbandhi, a
sub-caste of Cheros in Paldmau.

Terahgharid, a sub-caste of
Kunnis in Behar.

Tesd, a sept of Bhumijs in
Chota Nagpur.

Tesong , a synonym for
Limbu.

T eswdr, a seotion of Dams in
Behar.

T etenga, bloodsuoker, a totem-
istic sept of Parhaiyas.

Teteteyin or Bagt&r , a section
of Kharias in Chota Nagpur.

Tetid, a sept of the Chandra-
bansi division of Rdjputs in
Behar.

Tetihd, a kul or section of
Bfibhans in Behar.

Tetong, a thar or sept of
Murmis in Darjiling.

Teva Pdnya, a thar or section
of Nepdli Brahmans.

Tewan Raja, a kind of bird,
a totemistio sept of MYrnda s in
Chota Nagpur.

Tewdri, Tiwdri, a title of
Xdm&rs in Bengal ; of Brahmans

and Bdbhans in Behar ; a section
of Sribdstab Kdyasths and of
Magahiya Dorns in Behar.

Thdda, a thar or sept of
Mangars in Darjiling.

Thahrdit, a seotion of the
Kamar sub-caste of Dosadhs jn
Behar.

%hmix f a small labouring
caste of Nepal.

Thdkur, a synonym for Brah-
man ; a seotion of the Sribdstab
sub-caste of Kdyasths in Behar ;
a hypergamous division of the
Maghayd sub-caste of Barhis;
a title of Kanaujid Lohars,
Bdbhans, Brahmans, Rdjputs,
Kdmdrs, and of Hajjdms or
barbers in Behar; a title of a
respectable class of Tipperahs in
Hill Tipperah.

Thdkurmai rar, a pur or section
of Sdkadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Thdkurta, an honorary title
of Kdyasths in Bengal.

Thambden, the stay-at-home,
a sept of the Pheddb sub-tribe of
Limbus in Darjiling.

Thampdi-Mechj a sub-tribe of
Meohes in the Darjiling Terai.

Thamsong, a sub-sept of the
Thekim sept of Limbus in Dar-
jiling.

Thdnddr, a title of Haris and
Chanddls in Bengal who serve as
a village watch.

Thdpa, a title of Mangars in
Darjiling.

Thdpdngi, a section of Kdmk
in Daijiling.

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THAEAIT.

312

THXBTJ.

Tharait, a section of Maghaya
KumhArs in Behar.

ThAriAme-ThAri&nri, a mul of
the KAsyapa section of Maithil
Brahmans in Behar.

TharmSit, a dih or local sec-
tion of the MaghayA sub-caste of

Telis in Behar. The system of
exogamy among this sub-caste of
Telis seems, however, either to be
dying out or to be of reoent
introduction, for some of the
Maghayas say they have no
dihs, but merely prohibit marriage
within nine pirhis or degrees of
relationship.

a non- Aryan tribe of Behar and Upper India, whose
scattered settlements are met with all along the Himalayan terai,
from the Kosi river in Pumiah to the SArda between KumAon and
Nepal. In an exhaustive account of the tribe published in the
Calcutta Review , l Mr. Nesfield has the following remarks on their
name: —

“Absurd etymologies have been given for the name Thdru ,
some deriving it from tahre, “ they halted ” (after their alleged flight
into the forest), others from tar hua, “wet,” in allusion to the
swampy nature of the tract they live in. One writer derives it from
dthwdru , ‘ an eighth-day serf/ 2 But this implies what is not true.

The ThArus are remarkable for their indolenoe, aversion to service,
and incapacity for sustained field labour ; and they have never been
in the position of serfs to any landlords. Had this been the case,
they would have sunk long ago into the ranks of Arakhs, PAsis,
ChamArs, Koris, and other Hindu oastes of the lowest rank, who
serve as field labourers or bond slaves to landlords in the open plain,
and have lost the free life of the forest, which ThArus still enjoy.
Another etymology suggested is from thdr, whioh in the colloquial
dialect of the lowest classes, but not in the language of books, signi-
fies forest ; and thus thdru would mean ‘ man of the forest/ a name
which oorrectly describes the status of the tribe. On the whole,
however, it is safer not to seek for any Hindi etymology, but to
consider the name as sprung from the language of the tribe itself,
which is now for the most part obsolete. An aboriginal name,
underived from any Sanskrit or neo-Sanskrit source, is the fit appel-
lative to an aboriginal, casteless, and un-Brahmanised tribe, whose
customs have been only slightly modified by oontaot with those of
the Aryan invader.”

The origin of the ThArus has formed the subieot of much
_ . . controversy. The BautAr sub-tribe claim to be

on8o ongm. descendants of certain RAjputs of Chittor,

who quarrelled with their chief after his defeat by the Mahomedans,
divested themselves of the sacred thread, and took to agricultural

1 Description of the Manners , Industries , and Religion of the Thdru and
Bogsha Tribes of Upper India . By John C. Nesfield, M.A., Oxon. January
1886.

1 The first etymology is alluded to in Oudh Gazetteer, 1877, voL ii, p. 128 ;
the second, in North-West Census Report, 1867, vol. i, p. 61 ; the third (the
author of which is Raja 8iva Prasad, C.9.I.), in North-West Provinces
Gazetteer, 1881, vol. vi, p. 368.

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313

THARU.

pursuits. Mr. Nesfield, however, points out that — “Some Th&rus
know nothing about this tradition, and those who do are not able
to tell you whether it was the sack by Alaudin (A.D. 1303), or that
by Bah&dur Shah (A.D. 1533), or that by Akbar (A.D. 1567).
The story is absurd on the faoe of it. Not the slightest allusion to
Th&rus in oonneotion with any of these events is made by the
Mahommedan historians. The fiction of having come from Rajpnt&na
was invented by some of the clans merely to raise themselves in
their own and their neighbours’ estimation. There is soarcely any
hunting tribe or caste in Upper India which has not set up a similar
claim.”

Putting aside the hypothesis of R&jput descent as wholly unten-
able, we may, I think, conclude from the physical appearance of the
tribe that they are simply an aboriginal race, whose ancestors bore rule
at one time in the valley of the Ganges, and were gradually driven
up into the sub- Himalayan forests by the expansion of the Aryan
community. Thus within the last two or three centuries they have
been brought into contact with the Nepalese, and their physiognomy
“ has acquired in some instances a slightly Mongolian cast, which
shows itself chiefly, but not to a striking degree, in slanting eyes and
high cheek-bones. In other respects their physical characteristics are
of the strictly Indian type. They have long, wavy hair ; a dark,
almost a black, complexion ; and as much hair on the face and body as
is usual with other natives of India. 1 In stature, build, and gait they
are distinctly Indian, and not Mongolian ; nor have they any tradi-
tions whatever which conneot their origin with Nepal. A century’s
intercourse with the people of the hills is more than sufficient to
account for the slight Mongolian cast whioh some members of the
tribe have acquired.” They belong, in fact, to* the large group of
aboriginal races who are classed as Dra vidian or Kolarian, according
to the character of the language which they speak. The Th&rus
having lost their language cannot be affiliated to one or other of these
lin^uistio families ; but Mr. Nesfield’s description of their appearance,
which agrees substantially with the aooounts given by other observers,
leaves little room for doubting their non* Aryan descent. The relations
said to have sprung up in comparatively reoent times between the
Th&rus and the Nepalese find a tolerably complete parallel in the
intermixture which has taken place between the Dhim&ls of the
Darjiling Terai and some of the lower castes of Nepal.

The internal structure of the tribe, so far as I have been able to

_ ... work it out, is shown in Appendix I. My own

n c ure * researches, however, extend only to Behar, and

the enumeration of sub-tribes and septs is probably not oomplete even
for that provinoe. The nomadic habits of the Th&rus, and the great
extent of forest-dad area over whioh their settlements are scattered,
must in the long run tend to promote the formation of sub-castes,
and at the same time to make it difficult for the most careful

1 A Native correspondent, to whom I am indebted for some interesting notes
on the Th&rus of Champ&ran, remarks on the scantiness of their beards and
moustaches, but this peculiarity may have been due to crossing with Nepalese
orlieoh.

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THARU.

314

inquirer to give an absolutely correct aooount of the internal
divisions of the community, which in all likelihood are liable to
continual variations.

In Gorakpur, according to Mr. Nesfield, the ThArus divide them-
selves into two classes, — the Purabi or eastern, and the Pachhami or
western, the latter of whom call themselves Ghattris, and refuse to
eat with members of the eastern branch. The western ThArus again
are broken up into an upper ( barka ) and lower ( Chhotka ) division.
Further west, in the Gonda district of Oudh, we find the Dangaria
sub-tribe, who eat pork, and the KathAriA, who affect to abstain from
it. In Behar the Rautdr rank the highest, owing possibly to the
belief, which their name may have helped to encourage, that they
are somehow connected with the BA j puts. RautArs will not eat food
cooked by members of the other sub-oastes. ChitwaniA or ChitauniA
ThArus follow the profession of weavers, and say that their ancestors
were JolAhAs, who gave water to the Raja of Chittor when he was
out shooting, and obtained from him the boon that good Hindus
should ever afterwards take water from their hands. This sub-tribe
is more oommon in Nepal than in British territory. Its members
have certain peculiar usages, the reasons for which I cannot ascertain.
They perform no srdddh after a death, nor do their women go through
any purificatory ceremony after ohild-birth. The bridal procession
(bardt) is limited to four or five persons, who go on their way in
silenoe and employ no musicians to proclaim their errand. Among
their minor deities they worship the Baja of Chittor, to whom they
owe their promotion from the comparatively low status of JolAhA.

The septs appear to be either titular or territorial, and throw no
light upon the early affinities. The rule of exogamy followed is the
simple one that a man may not marry a woman belonging to the
same sept (ban) as himself. The standard formula for reckoning
prohibited degrees is also observed to four generations in the descend-
ing liue on either side.

Both infant and adult-marriage are in foroe, and sexual inter-
. oourse before marriage is said to be tolerated

armg0, by the ChitwaniA ThArus. The traditional
amount of the bride-price is supposed to be Rs. 9, but this is liable to
vary according to the circumstances of the family. The marriage
ceremony is modelled on the ritual in vogue among the lower Hindu
castes. Slight traces of the form of capture may perhaps be discerned
in it, but these are not very marked among the ThArus of Behar.
Brahmans officiate as priests, and the brother-in-law (ganjud ) of
the bride usually takes a prominent part in the proceedings. In
the MardaniA and OhitwaniA sub-tribes the bridegroom’s party,
instead of being entertained by the bride’s people, are expected to
feast the latter for three days before the bride is produced. No
second ceremony (gaund) is performed when the bride goes finally to
live with her husband. When she is married as an adult, she goes to
her husband at once, and in all cases I understand it is deemed
proper for her to spend one night at her husband’s house immediately
after marriage. On the occasion of this visit she and the relations
who accompany her are entertained at a feast oalled dulhi bhatdwan ,

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THABU.

4 giving rioe to the bride/ which celebrates her formal admission into
the septto which her husband belongs. If she is still an infant, she
is taken back next day to her parent’s house by her brother-in-law,
and remains there until she has attained sexual maturity.

Polygamy is permitted, and there appears to be no definite rule
limiting the number of wives a man may have. Widows may
marry again, and are subject to no special restrictions in their
selection of a second husband. Divorce is allowed, and appears to be
extremely common. The bond of wedlock is held in light esteem
among the Th&rus, who countenance a degree of sexual laxity
analogous to that which prevails among many of the Nepalese castes,
and generally among the sub-Himalayan races. Divorced women
may marry again by the same ceremony as widows, and both classes
are distinguished by the designation urari, or 4 selected/ from women
who were married as virgins by the full ritual. The social status of
an urari wife is respectable, though slightly inferior to that of a byahi
wife. Even this position, however, is not accorded to her unless
she is married with the consent of the relatives of her second
husband, which is signified by the oeremony of bhatand , or formally
admitting her to the y ew cibi of the household. Unless this is done
she is called a mraitin , or conoubine, and her husband cannot take
water or cooked food from her hands without endangering his
own standing in the family. Bhatdnd is also necessary when any one
has been debarred from social intercourse for an offence against the
customs of the tribe. There seems to be some difference of practice
among the Th&ru sub-tribes in respect of the admission of women
from a different sub-tribe. Some groups receive women from any
other group, others only from certain specified groups, while Baut&rs
decline to admit any outsiders to the privilege of bhatdnd, , although
they allow a woman of another sub-tribe to be kept by a Baut&r man
as a 8uraitin. Such women, however, have no rights as members of
the family, and their ohildren belong to their mother’s sub-tribe.

The religion of the Th&rus is a compound of the mingled
animism and Nature- worship characteristic of
eiigion. the aboriginal races and of elements borrowed

from popular Hinduism. A prominent place in their pantheon is
taken oy the hero Bikheswar, whom I suspeot to be identical with
the Eikhmun of the Musahar-Bhuiyas. According to the legend in
vogue among the Th&rus of Kheri, this deified founder was a son of
the renowned aboriginal King Baja Ben, whose fame is still rife in
many of the oldest cities of Upper India and Behar as one who
held the rank and title of Chakravarti , or universal emperor, in the
olden time. Bikheshwar or Baksha was banished, it is said, from
his father’s oourt, and ordered with his band of male followers to
seek for a new home in the north, from which they were never to
return. Setting out on their wanderings, they took as wives any
women whom they could steal or capture on the road, and in this
way the Th&ru tribe was founded. It was not till they had reaohed
the sub-Himalayan forest in which they still dwell that they decided
to rest and settle. The soul of Baksha is still believed to hover
among the people of his tribe. Just as in ancient days he led them

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316

safely through the wide wilderness into a new and distant settle-
ment, so in the present day he is said to be the guardian and guide
of men travelling on a distant journey. No Th&ru ever sets out
from his village for such a purpose without first propitiating him
with gifts and promising him a sumptuous feast of flesh, milk, and
wine on his return: His presence is represented by a mound of

mud, with a stone fixed in the middle ; and he delights in seeing the
head of a live capon dashed against this stone, and to feel its
blood trickling down the side. One peculiarity of this god is that he
is deaf,— an emblem of his antiquity ; and hence vows and prayers
are addressed to him in a stentorian tone of voice. The title gurua ,
which is generally prefixed to his name, implies that during his
residence on earth be was famous as a wizard or medicine-man, and
aoquired through this means the kingship or leadership of his tribe.

The animistic element in the Th&ru faith being represented by
Rikheswar, we may perhaps trace a mangled survival of Nature-
worship in two other deities of some importance, to whom Th&rus
address their vows. • One is Madadeo, the god of intoxicating liquor,
especially of the rice- wine made by themselves ; the other is Dhar-
ehandi, the patroness of cattle, though her name would imply that
she was at first intended to impersonate the earth. Her shrine,
like those of the other deities already named, is a mound of clay.
The mound dedicated to Dharohandi is studded with short wooden
crosses, on which rice, pulse, and other produoe of the fields are
offered, and always on plates of leaf. Her shriue is so placed that
all the cattle of the village, together with the swine, sheep, and
goats, pass it on going out to graze, and repass it on their return.
When the cattle sicken or die, larger and more valuable offerings are
made. Neither of these deities is known or worshipped by other
natives of Upper India.

Fowls are offered to Dharchandi ; he-goats to Mari, the patron
goddess of Kan jars and, according to Mr. Nesfield, identical with
jfc&li. This, however, seems not to be the case in Behar. In Cham-
paran Kua is worshipped as a village deity by casting sweetmeats
down a well (kud) and smearing vermilion on its rim. All these
primitive deities, however, are rapidly losing ground in the estimation
of the people, and giving way to the more popular worship of Siva
and his oonsort K&li. It is likely enough that both of these are
themselves merely elaborated forms of aboriginal objects of worship,
which may well have been familiar to an earlier generation of Th&rus.
But Siva and Kali, as now revered by the tribe, have clearly been
borrowed at quite a recent date from the Hindus, and cannot be
regarded as indigenous deities.

The goddess who presides over life and death, and whom the
Th&rus believe to be the supreme power in the universe, is K&likk,
— one of the numerous forms of Devi, Durgl, or K&li, at whose
name all India trembles, especially the low castes and the casteless
tribes, amongst whom she origiually sprung. Medicine-men look
to K&lik& as the speoial patroness of their art. To the fair sex she
is the goddess of parturition, and her aid is especially invoked
by women who have had no ohildren. All classes oombine to

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317

THAEU.

f ive her a periodical ovation, accompanied with much dancing,
anqueting, and drinking of wine at about the middle of Ootober.
Th&rus also take part in the huge animal sacrifice performed at her
celebrated altar in Devi Patan (Gonda district). Such is her thirst
for blood, that at this time 20 buffaloes, 250 goats, and 250 pigs are
slaughtered daily for ten days continuously. The sacrifice is vica-
rious, the blood of buffaloes, etc., being intended as a substitute for
that of human victims. This loathsome festival is thronged with
visitors from the plains of India and from the hills of Nepal,
Sikkim, and Bhotan.

“ Another deity revered by Th&rus, and, like K&likA, of indigen-
ous or non-Aryan origin, is her consort Siva, known chiefly
amongst Th&rus by the name of Bhairava, the Terrible, or Thakur,
the Lord, and amongst Hindus by that of Mahadev, the great god.
He, like his spouse, is a god of destruction, and thirsts for blood ;
but he is chiefly worshipped by Th&rus as the author of reproduc-
tion, of whioh a stone lingam, as amongst Hindus, is sometimes
made the symbol. It is more usual, however, for a Th&ru to erect
a mud mound in front of his house and fix an upright pole in its
oentre to represent the presence of this phallic divinity.”

Although modem Hinduism is fast displacing the earlier gods
of the Th&ru religion, it seems probable that the principles of their
primitive belief will long. survive in the strong fear of evil spirits
which continually haunts the tribe. It is to the action of these
spirits that fever, ague, cough, dysentery, fainting, headache, mad-
ness, bad dreams, and pain of all kinds are ascribed. In faot, the
Th&rus have no conception of natural disease, and no belief in
natural death, except what is faintly conceived to be the result of
natural decay. Their state, therefore, would be one of utter helpless-
ness were it not for the reputed skill of medicine-men or sorcerers,
who profess to have the power to oontrol the spirits of the air or to
interpret their grievances and wants. In the Th&ru language these
men are oalled bararar ; but the titles of Guru, Guru&, Bhagat,
Nyotya, Ojhait, all of whioh are borrowed from Hindi, are now in
common use, though even of these the last two are probably of
aboriginal or non-Sanskrit origin* The power of the medicine-man
is tremendous. He has a host of liege spirits at his oommand. Not
only can he expel a fiend from the body of the sufferer, but he can
produce suffering or death by driving a malignant spirit into the
Dody of his foe. In order to exorcise on evil spirit, he holds in his
left hand some ashes of oowdung, or grains of mustard seed, or wild
nuts, and after breathing some mystical virtue into them by the
utterance of a spell, he causes the patient to eat them, or has them
attaohed to his arm. One of the spells uttered at such times is as
follows. It is addressed to Kftlik&, the Th&ru goddess of death and
patroness of the magical art : —

Our hat gvr sair Our t antra mantra Our : Lakhai niranjan ; toka
8ohai phulka bhdr ; Hamka sohai gun vidyd kai bhdr : Yahdn kai
vidyd nahin , Kamru Kdm kai vidyd . Jam vidyd Kamru Kdm kai Idgai ,
team vidyd Idgai rnor.

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THABU.

318

The language is that of bad and soaroely intelligible Hindi, and
might be rendered thus : —

“ The Guru (Kftlika) is great, she is everything, she is tantra
“ (magic by deeds), she is mantra (magic by words). She points out
“ the way to relief. Thou (oh KalikA) deservest to be heaped with
“ flowers. I too deserve to be heaped with secret wisdom, — the wisdom
u of Kamru K&m, not the wisdom of this country. Whatever
“ effects the knowledge of Kamru Kam produces, such effects let my
44 knowledge produoe also.”

“ The burial rites of ThArus are of various kinds. Sepulture or
... . ... , , earth-burial seems to have been the original

posal 0 0 custom ; but the Hindu rite of cremation has

now become common in many clans, exoept in the case of persons
who have died of ohclera or small-pox ; and these are invariably
buried in the earth. After cremation the ashes are scattered on the

nearest river. Before, however, the oorpse has been disposed of by
either rite, it is usual to paint it with vermilion and expose it for
one night on a mound outside the house. From this mound, as from
a stronghold, the spirit of the dead is supposed to soare away wild
animals from the oorpse. Whether the body is buried or burnt, the
ceremony is always performed on the southern side of the village —
a notion probably borrowed from Hindus, who consider that the
north is the region commonly frequented by divine spirits, and the
south by human souls. The man who puts the first fire to the
funeral pyre is considered to be unolean, from having brought
himself within dangerous reach of the contagion of death. He is
therefore kept at a distance for ten days after cremation, and

compelled to live entirely alone.” “ On the expiry of the tenth

day (or the thirteenth, as some Thftrus relate), the friends of the
deceased meet at the house where he died, and after undergoing the
ceremony of shaving they hold 4 a feast of the dead/ The banquet
prepared for this purpose consists of oooked flesh and wine, the
scent and smoke of which are intended to refresh the departed soul :
the solid parts — that is, the flesh and wine themselves — are consumed
by the living.”

44 In oertain rare cases the burial rite is performed in a manner
distinct from either of those already described. A man noted above
his fellows for wisdom in counsel, bravery in the chase, or knowledge
of the magical and medioinal arts, is buried under the floor of the
house in which he was living before his spirit departed. The house
thenceforth becomes a temple, and ceases to be used as a dwelling
place for man. The soul of the dead becomes its occupant, and it
lives there to bless those whom it has left behind. At periods of
three or six months after the death, the friends and neighbours of the
deceased assemble around his grave or temple and make an effigy in
clay, parts of whioh are painted in various colours, intended to repro-
duce the appearance of resuscitated life. His worshippers fall down
weeping and wailing before the image, and place offerings of cooked
flesh and wine at its feet. Presently, at a given signal, as soon as
the soul of the dead is believed to have been propitiated by the scent
of roast meat and the fumes of wine, they commenoe to dance and

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319

THAEU.

sing with every demonstration of joy ; and the proceedings of the day
are dosed with oonsuming the solid parts of the offerings.”

The ThArus stand wholly outside of the Hindu caste organiza-

„ . tion, and their social status cannot be defined by

any of the ordinary standards. No orthodox
Hindu will eat with a ThAru or take water from his hands, and
by the higher castes his mere touoh would be deemed pollution.
This comparatively degraded position is, however, due in great
measure to the nomadic habits of the tribe, and to the fact that they
come very little into contact with settled Hindu communities.
ThArus follow the forest ; their typical village is a line of huts in the
middle of a clearing, and their favourite mode of husbandry was
until lately the jhum method of burning the jungle and planting
a crop in the ashes. The scanty crops obtained in this fashion are
eked out by hunting and fishing, by gathering forest fruits and
vegetables, and by grazing cows and buffaloes. Avoiding the larger
villages of the plains, they live their own life on the outskirts of
Hindu civilization, and no place has as yet been allotted in the
Hindu social system. “ Every little village,” says Mr. Nesfield,
“ is a self-governing community. Disputes are decided by a council
of elders ; and this is sometimes presided over by a headman, who
in the ThAru language was formerly called barwaik, but who is now
dubbed even by themselves with the ordinary Hindi title of chau-
dhari. The office of headman is not hereditary. The man seleoted
is one whose age, experience, and knowledge of the magical and
medicinal arts entitle him to more respect than the rest ; and he
acquires the status of headman by taoit consent, and not by formal
election. The decisions of the council or the headman ore obeyed
unreservedly, and there is no such thing known as a ThAru taking
a fellow tribesman before a tribunal outside his own community.
Litigation between ThArus and Hindus is equally unknown. Among
themselves the ThArus are for the most part a peaceful and good-
natured race, following without question, as if by a law of nature,
the customs and maxims of their ancestors.” Notwithstanding their
comparative isolation, their customs show many signs of the influenoe
of Hindu example. Their religious observances tend unmistakeably
towards Sivaism ; their marriage ceremony is framed on a Hindu
model ; they revere the cow, and scrupulously abstain from eating
beef. Their ultimate reception into the standard social system seems
therefore merely to be a question of time. In other respects their
practioe in matters of food falls short of the orthodox standard.
They eat pigs and fowls, and make no distinction between the dean
and unclean species of fish. Field-rats they will cook when pressed
for food, and the poroupine (sdhi) is thought a delicacy, beoause
his flesh resembles that of the pig. Mr. Nesfield mentions that
when their stock of meat beoomes larger than they can consume
at once, they preserve it by cutting it into strips and drying it
in the sun.

As agriculturists they are still for the most part in the
migratory stage, cultivating the land on which
they have put up their temporary houses till it

Occupation.

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THAEU.

320

has given proof of exhaustion, and then moving off to fresh grounds
to make a new olearanoe. Formerly it was their custom not to orop
the same land for more than two years together. But this is now
no longer the oase. The Government oonservancy laws, which have
come into foroe of late, have interfered very seriously with their
freedom in the selection of new sites ; and hence the present
tendency of the tribe is either to move up into Nepal territory or to
remain below for a longer period in the same place. The orop in
which Th&rus chiefly delight is rice — the grain best suited to the
swampy nature of their fields and to the heavy rainfall of the
months between June and October. The coarse red rice called
sathi is the quality preferred. In the rainless months they chiefly
grow peas, a small black grain called kodo, and the pulse called
arhar, Suoh crops require occasional irrigation ; and this is effected,
not by drawing water from wells or from tanks and marshes and
conveying it into the fields through artificial channels, as is the
custom of Hindu cultivators, but by the rough-and-ready process of
damming up the nearest rivulet and thus inundating the orop.

The women do the largest share of the sowing, weeding, and
harvesting, while the men engage in hunting, fishing, etc., which
they consider the proper calling of their sex. Such has been the
invariable instinct of savage tribes both in India and elsewhere. The
men have an intense repugnance to regular manual labour, and
nothing will induoe them to hire themselves out as labourers to
Hindu landlords. The only kind of service which a Th&ru will
undertake is that of elephant-driver to some neighbouring prinoelet
or r&ja. Their skill as elephant-drivers is admitted everywhere ; and
latterly they have acquired the art of catching wild elephants
from the forest and taming them for the prince who employs
them.

The only kinds of art or manufacture which Th&rus can be
said to possess are the manipulation of leaves, reeds, and fibres,
and a rude kind of oarpentry. The latter is exemplified in making
the wooden part of the plough, in shaping the handles of tools,
dove-tailing the comers of wells, and in fixing up the sides and
roofs and floors of their houses. The former is an accomplishment
common to backward raoes in every part of the world, wherever
the materials exist ; and here in India it is practised bv all the
low castes of Hindus (Bhars, P&sis, Bhangis, Baris, Dharkars, etc.)
whose stage of culture is scarcely, if at all, raised above that of
the casteless tribes. The Th&rus make strong and durable mats
out of the fine bankas grass, which they gather in large quantities
from the lower ranges of the hills in the first quarter of the year.
Excellent twine and rope are made from the same material ; and
such twine is used for the manufacture of fishing nets, nooses,
and snares, for drawing water from the well, for tethering cattle,
and many other purposes. Not less skilled are they in making
the funnel-shaped Daskets in which fish are caught, or in thatching
the roofs of their houses. They have even invented a kind of
umbrella made of cane and mat work; so great is their aversion
to the sun and to the open plains. For plates and drinking oups

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321

THH0LACH4.

they skewer large leaves together to the shape required for either
purpose ; and for drawing and keeping water they use a hollowed
gourd or tomri. Some who are better off than others use vessels
made of olay or brass ; but these oan only be obtained from Kumh&rs
(potters) and Thateras (braziers), both of whom are Hindu oastes;
for there is no such thing as home-made pottery or brass work
amongst the ThAru tribe.

The following statement shows the number and distribution
of ThArus in 1872 and 1881

District.

1872.

1881.

District.

1872.

1881.

Darjiling

Uarohanga

Saran ... ^

*'820

118

9t5

Chnmpmran

Bhftgfclpar ...

Purniah

21,460

18,896

112

1,510

ThAther or That her a, a sub-
caste of EAndus in Behar ; a sec-
tion of the BanodhiA and JaiswAr
HalwAis in Behar.

Thatheri , a bra-
zier; in Shahabad also called
KaserA, whioh properly means
a brass founder. See KaserA.

ThAthung, a thar or sept of
Gurungs in Darjiling.

Thawai, a synonyn for raj mis -
tiri or mason, in use in Saran
and South Champaran.

ThazoepA, a rui or sept of the
Ruichhung sub-tribe of Dejong
Lhoris or Bhotias of the south.

Theguba, the son of the cliff,
a sept of the PhedAb sub-tribe of
Limbus in Darjiling.

Thehbeh, a sept of the Yan-
gorup sub-tribe of Limbus.
This is an eponymous thar named
after Thehbeh, son of Srijanga,
the powerful ohief of the tribe,
since deified, who fought against
Prithi NArAyan, the founder of
the present ruling dynasty of
Nepal.

Theky a synonym for ChakmA.

Thekim, he who works in
wioker, including the sub-septs
(a) Meongba, (ftf Thamsong, (c)
Chobegu, (d) Petehhimba, (e)
Angbu, the forest-dweller, (/)
Yakten, formerly doctors — a sept
of the PAnthar sub-tribe of
Limbus in Darjiling.

Thekra, a seotion of BinjhiAs
in Chota Nagpur.

ThemjAni, a thar or sept of
Gurungs in Darjiling.

ThengAit, a seotion of the
DhusiA sub-caste of ChamArs in
Behar.

Thenglahbo, the native of
Thenglah, a sept of the Ahtharai
sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Theni, a section of Utkal or
Orissa Brahmans.

Thero, Tharua , a sub-tribe of
Santals in the south of Man-
bhum who employ Brahmans and
have adopted portions of the
Hindu ritual.

Theva, a sept of ChakmAs in
the Hill Tracts of Chittagong.

ThholAchA, a thar or sept of
SunuwArs in Darjiling.

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THING.

332

TILACHHW AS.

Thing, a section of Murmis in
Darjiling.

Thingal, a gotra or section of
Agarwals.

Th ith io, a bird with long legs,
a totemistio sept of Mnndas in
Ohota Nagpur.

Thobukya, he who has skin
disease, a sept of the Pbedib sub*
tribe. of Limbus in Darjiling.

Thogleng, the suicide, a sept
of the Chhothar sub-tribe of
limbus in Darjiling.

Thogphelagu, he who wears
the rhododendron flower, a sept
of the Charkhola sub-tribe of
limbus in Darjiling.

Thokar, a section of Murmis
in Darjiling.

Thokchetki, a that or sept of
Mangars in Darjiling.

Thollong, the ragged one, a
sept of the Miakhola sub-tribe of
limbus in Darjiling.

Tholochi, a thar or sept of
flunuwirs in Darjiling.

Thomi, a synonym for Mangar.

Thongtha, Thongeha, or JumiA
Magh, a sub-tribe of Maghs in
the Hill Tracts of Chittagong.

Thorelib, a section of the Ba-
nodhii and Jaiswir Kalwirs in
Behar.

Thukrin, a section of G-oil&s
in the North-Western Provinces
and Behar.

Thulung, a thar or sept of
Khambus in Darjiling.

Thumuch&, a thar or sept of
Sunuwars in Darjiling.

Thungong-hepta, a sept of
the Phigu sub-tribe of Yakhas
in Darjiling.

Thupra, a sept of the Phigu
sub-tribe of Yakhas in Darjiling.

Thupuku, a sept of the Yan-
gorup sub-tribe of Limbus in
Darjiling.

Th up-yumah , name of a place,
a sept of the Tambrkhola sub-
tribe of limbus in Daijiling.

Tiar, a synonym for Tiyar
a sub-caste of Kewats in Orissa.

Ti&r, a sept of Hi j puts in
Behar.

Tiar, Tear, a sub-caste of Mal-
l&hs in Behar.

Tiar or Dalai, a group of the
Rijbansi sub- caste of Koohhs in
Northern Bengal.

Tig, a monkey, which is the
totem of a section of Oraon-
Dhfingars settled for several
generations in North Bhagal-
pur.

Tihu, a sept of Hos in Sing-
bhum.

Tyra, a synonym for Mirshir
kir.

Tikaur, a sub-caste of Brah-
mans in Behar.

Tikki, a sub-sept of the
Murmu sept of San tils.

Trijattd, or Mag-
haiya Brahman, a caste employed
in making tiklis, the spangles,
wafers, or glass patches worn upon
the forehead by women. They
permit widow-marriage and rank
socially among the serving castes,
such as Kahirs. In Patna the
term tiklihdr denotes merely the
occupation described above, whioh
is followed by Mahomedans.

Tilachhwar, a section of Bib-
hans in Behar.

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323

TIPPEBAH.

Til&iw4r, a mul of the Sdndttl
flection of Maithil Brahmans in
Behar.

Tilakchandif a sept of BAjpute
in Behar.

Tilak DAs, a sub-caste of
Tiyars in Eastern Bengal ; a sect
of Vaishnavs who follow the
tenets of Tilak-d&s.

Tilatw&r, a mul or section of
the Naomulia or Majraut sub-
caste of GoAlas in Behar.

TilautA, a sept of the Surya-
bansi sub-tribe of RAjputs in
Behar.

Tilding, a sept of Limbus in
Darjiling.

a worker in til (sesamum
orientate), a synonym for Teli.

Til id, a seotion of the Baran-
w&r sub-oaste of Baniy&s in
Behar.

Timilsin&, a thar of the Maut*
kaha gotra of NepAli Brahmans.

Tin, a sept of Hos in Sing-
bhum.

Tinai Prabar&i, a thar of
the Basishtha gotra of Nep&li
Brahmans.

Tindiha, a seotion of Ban-
tarid Kdndus in Behar.

Tingal, a gotra or seotion of

Tingilmung, a sept of Lep-
ohas in Daqiling.

TinmuliA Madhesia, a sub-
caste of Halw&is in Behar.

TinriAr, a seotion of the
Amashta sub-caste of KAyasths
in Behar.

Tior, a synonym for Tiyar.

Triprd, Mrung, a wandering tribe of Hill Tipperah
. and the Chittagong Hill Tracts, who live by

the jhum cultivation described in the article on
the Magh tribe. Lewin identifies them with the Mrungs of Arrakan,
who, according to Colonel Phayre, believe themselves to be the
descendants of persons carried away from Tipperah by the Arrakan
kings. The Maghs speak of the entire tribe by the name Mrung,
and do not use the Bengali word Tipperah. Members of the
Tipperah tribe have no general name for their race, and when '
speaking his own language a man describes himself by mentioning
the sept to which he belongs. When speaking Bengali, however,
he would say he was a Tipperah. It seems to follow from this that
the term Tipperah is not a genuine tribal name, but a designation
conferred by outsiders by reason of the tribe being specially
numerous in Hill Tipperah. Whether this was their original habitat
or not is uncertain, and some have supposed that they came from
Manipur. To attempt to traoe the earliest home of a wandering
tribe who live by jhum cultivation and have neither written records
nor definite oral traditions must always be a somewhat hopeless task,
and the most reasonable view of the matter seems to be that taken
by Friedrich Muller and other German ethnologists, who class
all the wild tribes of the Chittagong and Tipperah Hills under the
head Lohitio, a word which denotes some sort of connexion with the
Brahmaputra river, and describe them in general terms as standing
in the same ethnic relation to the Burmese as the Himalayan

a? 2

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TIPPERAH.

324

raoes do to the Tibetans . 1 The classification into Toungtha and
Khyoungtha, hill-people and river-people, adopted by Captain
Lewin, however convenient for local use, fails, as Professor Virchow®
has observed, to bring out the true racial affinities of the various
tribes.

The Tipperahs are described in a survey report by Mr. H. J.
. . . . . Reynolds as having strongly-marked Mongolian

n 0 features, with flat faoes and thick lips. They

are of much the same stature as Bengalis, but their frames are far
more muscular and strongly made. Many of them have fair com-
plexions, scarcely darker than a swarthy European. The tribe is
divided into a number of septs, which are shown in the Appendix.
They appear to be exogamous, but on this point there is some
difference of opinion. I have only been able to discover the meaning
of one sept name, K&kulu, a kind of gourd, and with regard to this
no one could tell me whether the members of the K&kulu sept were
forbidden to eat this gourd or were subject to any kind of taboo in
respeot of it. The point seems to demand further inquiry in the
Hill Tracts by some one thoroughly acquainted with the language of
the tribe. The Ri&ng sent serve as palanquin-bearers, and are said
to be looked down upon by the others ; but it does not appear that
they have on this account been excluded from the right of inter-
marriage with other septs. The Mah&r&jas of Hill Tipperah, who
now put forward an untenable claim to be B&jputs, are believed to
belong to the Afang and Jum&tya septs, the members of which
frequently call themselves RAjbansi by way of recalling their
relationship to the royal family. The K&li sept furnish the guards
of the ohief .

Tipperahs admit into their tribe Lushais, Maghs, and Hindus.

The ceremony of admission consists simply of
ntermamage. a f ea8 |- gi ven by the new member, at which

a pig is served up and a huge quantity of drink consumed. The
proselyte declares himself to have entered the tribe, and is treated
thenceforth as if he had been a Tipperah by birth. The liquors
drunk on these and similar occasions are khung (ferment from rioe),
9ipd (fermented from birni), and arrack (distilled from rice).

Adult-marriage is the universal rule, and “great freedom of
Mar . intercourse is allowed between the sexes, but a

Marriage. Tipperah girl is never known to go astray out

of her own clan. An illegitimate birth, also, is hardly known
among them, for the simple reason that should a girl become enciente
her lover has to marry her. The girls are totally free from the

E rudery that distinguishes Mahomedan and Hindu women, and they
ave an open, frank manner, combined with a womanly modesty
that is attractive. At a marriage there is no particular ceremony,
but a great deal of drinking and dancing. A pig is killed as a
sacrifice to the deities of the wood and stream, the crowning point
of the affair being this: the girl’s mother pours out a glass of

1 F. Muller. Allgemeine Ethnographic, p. 405
1 Riebeck’s Chittagong Hill-Tribet , Anthropological Remark #•

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TIPPERAH.

liquor and gives it to her daughter, who goes and site on her lover’s
knee, drinks half, and gives him the other half ; they afterwards
crook together their little fingers. If a matoh be made with the
consent of the parents, the young man has to serve three years in his
father-in-law’s house before he obtains his wife or is formally
married. During the period of probation his sweetheart is to all
intents and purposes a wife to him. On the wedding night, however,
the bridegroom has to sleep with his wife surreptitiously, entering
the house by stealth and leaving it before dawn. He then absents
himself for four days, during which time he makes a round of visits
among all his friends. On the fourth day he is escorted baok with
great ceremony, and has to give another feast to his cortege. A
Tipperah widow may remarry if it so seems good to her. Every
lad before marriage has his sweetheart, and he cohabits with her
whenever opportunity serves. This, however, is without the know-
ledge of the elders.

“Divorce,” says Major Lewin, “can be obtained among the
Tipperahs, as among all the hill tribes, on the adjudication of a jury
of village elders. One such case I remember to have seen. The
divorce was sued for by the wife on the grounds of habitual cruelty.
The jury deliberated and found that the cruelty was proved, and
that the divorce should be granted. Some check, however, they
determined, must be put upon the woman, or otherwise every wife
would complain if her husband raised his little finger at her.
Accordingly they gave sentence that the divoroe was granted, but
that as the woman was wrong to insist upon abandoning her lawful
husband, she should give up all her silver ornaments to him, pay
a fine of thirty rupees, and provide a pig with trimmings, in the
shape of ardent spirits, to be discussed by the jury.”

The religion of the Tipperahs is a debased form of Hinduism.

Reiiirfo They offer to K&li black goats, rice, plantains,

llgloIL sweetmeats, areca nut, curds, red lead, etc.

The goddess has no image, but is represented for sacrificial purposes
by a round lump of day, the edges of whioh are drawn out into four
points or legs, so that the whole, seen from above, bears a rough
resemblance to sea-urchin with four arms. Satya-NArAyan is also
worshipped, but in his case the offerings oonsist only of fruits or
flowers. The tribe do not employ Brahmans, but have priests, or
rather exorcists, of their own, called AuchAi, whose offioe is
hereditary*

“ When a Tipperah dies, his body is immediately removed from
^ . # . , within the house to the open air. A fowl is

Duposai of the dead. ^ plaoed wit h some rioe at the dead

man’s feet. The body is burnt at the water side. At the spot where
the body was first laid out, the deoeased’s relatives kill a cook every
morning for Seven days, and leave it there with some rioe as an
offering to the manes of the dead. A month after death a like
offering is made at the place of cremation, and this is occasionally
repeated for a year. The ashes are deposited on a hill in a small
hut built for the purpose, in which are also plaoed the dead man’s
weapons, — a spear, ddos of two sorts (one his fighting ddo, the other

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tipperah.

320

his every-day bread-winner), arrow heads, his metal-stemmed pipe,
earrings, and ornaments. The place is held sacred.”

In connection with the beliefs of the Tipperahs regarding the
spirits of the dead, Major Lewin speaks of a curious practice. He
says : — “ We were travelling once through the jungles, and the path
led across a small streamlet. Here I observed a white thread
stretched from one side to the other, bridging the stream. On
inquiring the reason of this it appeared that a man had died away
from his home in a distant village ; his friends had gone thither and
performed his obsequies, after whioh it was supposed that the dead
man’s spirit would accompany them back to his former abode.
Without assistance, however, spirits are unable to cross running
water ; therefore the stream here had been bridged in the manner
aforesaid.”

Another use of the white thread mentioned by Lewin as practised
by the TippeTahs and most of the hill races seems to be a survival
of the primitive animistic belief whioh attributes all disease to the
action of malevolent spirits, who nevertheless can be propitiated by
the exorcist who knows the proper means of turning away their wrath;
When an epidemic breaks out in a village, the Tipperahs and many
other hill tribes call in an Auoh&i to appease the demon of sickness
by a sacrifice. The entire village is encircled with a newly-spun white
thread, and the blood of the animal sacrificed is freely sprinkled
about. This is followed by careful sweeping and oleansing, and the
houses and gates are deoorated with green boughs. For three days
afterwards tne thread is maintained unbroken, and no one is allowed
to enter or leave the village. The theory seems to be that if the
demon who presides over the malady can be kept at bay for that time,
he will go away disappointed, while a breach of the quarantine or
khang would lead to a renewal of the outbreak.

“The dress of the Tipperahs,” says Lewin, “is of the simplest
description. Among the men a thick turban
is worn, and a narrow piece of home-spun
doth, with a fringed end hanging down in front and rear, passes
once round the waist and between tne legs. In the cold season they
wear a rudely-sewn jacket. The males wear silver earrings, oresoent-
shaped, with little silver pendants on the outer edge. The dress of
the women is equally unomate. The pettiooat is short, reaohing
a little below the knee, mid made of very coarse cotton stuff of their
own manufacture. It is striped in odours of red and blue. If the
woman be married, this petticoat will fonn her whole ooBtume ; but
the unmarried girls cover the breast with a gaily-dyed cloth with
fringed ends. The women never oover their heads; they wear
earrings like the men ; but in addition to this ornament they distend
the lobe of the ear to the size of half a orown by the insertion of
a concave-edged ring of Bilver, placed, not through, but in, the
lobe. Both sexes have long, black, abundant hair, which is worn
in a knot at the back of the head. The use of false hair is
common among them, especially the women. The meshes of false
hair are woven in among the back hair to make the knot look
larger.”

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TIPPEBAH.

827

TIBUHAB.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of
the Tipperah tribe in 1872 and 1881 : —

DISTRICT.

1872.

1881.

District.

1872.

1881.

Each Behar

Dacca

Faridpur

Bakarganj

***’*217

1,126

101

Chittagong

Noakhali

Tipperah

HOI Tracts

232

8,004

11,800

225

1,895

15*964

Tipperah-Suryabansi, also
called Rajbansi — a mixed class
of Bengalis and Tipperahs.

Tipriati, a section of the
Maghayd sub-caste of Barhis in
Behar.

Tirango, a wild bird, atotem-
istio sept of Mundas in Gbota
Nagpur.

Tirhutid, a sub-caste of bar-
bers; of Hindu Jol&hfo (Tatwa
or T&nti) ; and of Kumhdrs in
Behar, who say they can inter-
marry with the Maghayi and
l)esi sub-castes. The Maghay&s,
however, allege that all the sub-
castes are strictly endogamous;
a sub-oaste of Thathera or brass-
chaser and of L&heris, Telia, and
Timbulis in Behar.

Tirhutid or Chiraut , a sub-
caste of Dh&nuks, Dorns, and
Hajj&ms in Behar.

Tirhutid or Maithil, a terri-
torial division of Brahmans in
Behar.

Tirkar, a maker of bowB and
arrows ; a title of Dorns ; a title
of Byidhs who originally killed
birds and beasts and lived on
meat obtained by ohase, at present
most of them have taken to agri-
culture.

Tirki, bull, a totemistio sept of
Go&14s, Asuras, Cbam&rs, Khar-
wars, Loharsi- Mundas, Oraons,

and N6geswars in Chota Nagpur
who cannot touch any cattle after
eyes open; a section of Gh&sis
and Gor&its ; a totemistio seotion
of Dorns and Turis implying a
mouse.

Tirkiar, tree-mice, a totemistio
sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Tirko&r, a section of KhariAs
in Chota Nagpur.

Tirkuar, fruit, a totemistio
sept of Oraons and Turis in
Chota Nagpur.

Tiro, a small bird, a totemis-
tio sept of Mundas in Chota
Nagpur.

Tirsulid, a sub-oaste of PAsis
in Behar.

Tirtha, a seot of Dasn&mi
Sanny&sis.

Tirthjairi , a pilgrim.

Tirtia, a bird, a totemistio
sept of Mundas and Oraons in
Chota Nagpur.

Tiru, a kind of bird or fish, a
totemistio sept of Mundas and
Oraons in Chota Nagpur.

Tirud, a section of K&mis in
Darjiling.

Tiruar, arrow, a sept of Khar-
wars in Chota Nagpur ; a section
of Kurmis in Behar.

Tiruhar, a bird, a totemistio
sept of M undas in Chota Nagpur

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328

TIYAB.

TirusiA, a mul or flection of
Kasarwfini Baniyfis in Behar.

TisbaryA or Tested?, a section
of the PachainyA sub-caste of
Dorns in Behar.

Tisor, a section of the SAtmu-
liA MaghayA sub-caste of Hindus
in Behar.

Tiswar, a mul or section of
the MaghayA sub-caste of Koiris
in Behar.

TitehiA, a section of BAbhans
in Behar.

Tithi, a bird, a totemistio sept
of Oraons in Ghota Nagpur.

TitiA BAmbAr, a mul or sec-
tion of the Naomulia or Majraut
sub-caste of GoAlas in Behar.

Titipi, a totemistio sept of
BediAs in Ghota Nagpur, signi-
fying a night bird.

Tititihu, a section of KhariAs
in Ghota Nagpur.

Tittal, a gotra or section of
Agarwals.

Titung, a section of Murmis
in Darjiling.

TiwAri, see TewAri.

^tpar, Tiar , Tior , Rdjbanri, Machhud , a Dravidian boating
_ . and fishing caste of Bengal and Behar, whom

Ungin * Mr. Beames seems disposed to identify with

the Dhimar, a sub-caste of the KAhArs. It may be doubted,
however, whether this opinion rests upon any surer basis than
similarity of name and occupation; and the names appear to be
distinct, Tiyar being a corruption of the Sanskrit tivara , ‘ a hunter/
while Dhimar is derived from Sanskrit dhivara , ‘ a fisherman.’ The
two groups, moreover, show marked differences of complexion and
physical type. The Dhimar have a light-brown skin and fairly
well-cut features, and are not noticeably below the average stature
of Hindus of the middle olass. The Tiyars, on the other hand,
according to Dr. Wise, who had speoial opportunities of observing
them, are short and muscular, with prominent oheek-bones, dark-
brown — almost black — complexions, thiok and generally projecting
lips, and long ooarse hair, worn in a oue, which has often a reddish
tinge towards the tip— a peculiarity oommon to them and other low
castes, whioh, although in the first instanoe produoed by exposure, is
now, if not hereditary, at least characteristic. In Eastern Bengal,
where no subdivisions exist, the Tiyars oall themselves R&j-bansi,
t * , . . or sometimes, as in Maimansinh, Tilak DAs,

iace ’ while those living on the Ganges lay claim to
the title of Suraj-bansi. Aooording to Buohanan, the Tiyars of
Bhagalpur are divided into BAman-jagya, who are cultivators and
elean SudrAs, and Govarfya, who fish, eat pork, drink spirits, and
are outcastes. Wherever they are regarded as pure, a DasnAmi
ascetic aots as guru and a Maithil Brahman as purohit; when
impure, a GosAin of Bengal is guru, and a Patit or degraded
Brahman is purohit.

The seotions of the Tiyars shown in the Appendix throw no
light on the origin of the caste. It is indeed doubtful whether the
section-names are in general use for the purpose of enforcing the
practice of exogamy; and I believe that praotice, at least in its
primitive form, to have been abandoned in favour of the more modem

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TIYAR.

system of simply specifying the relations whom a man or woman
may not marry. For this purpose they make use of the standard
formula mamerd , chacherd , etc., calculated to five generations in the
descending line on the male side and three generations on the female.

Girls are usually married as infants, but cases sometimes ooour
. in which, owing to the poverty of her parents,

armg0 * a girl’s marriage is deferred until she has

passed the age of puberty. Polygamy is permitted, and in theory
at least there are no restrictions on the number of wives a man
may have. In Behar a widow may marry a second time. She is not
obliged to marry her late husband’s younger brother, if suoh a
relative exist, but it is considered a very proper thing for her to do
so ; and the fact that he has a right to the custody of the children by
the first husband tends as a rule to induce the widow to agree to the
arrangement. In Bengal widows never marry, but earn a livelihood
by selling fish, by manufacturing string, and suoh like petty
industries. Those who find suoh an existence too monotonous, and
desire a change of life and scene, usually join one of the mendioant
orders of the Vaishnava sect. In the matter of divorce the practice
of the caste seems to vary. Bengal Tiyars do not recognize it at all,
while in Behar it is permitted only with the sanction of the caste
panch&yat, a well-organized body presided over by a headman
(manjhan), whose jurisdiction is supposed to comprise the traditional
number of twenty-two villages. Each manjhan has under him a
ehhariddr or stick-bearer, whose business it is to prooure the attend-
ance of persons summoned to appear before the panoh&yat, and
generally to oarry out the orders of the manjhan .

Am ong the Tiyars of Bengal three hypergamous groups are
reoognized, the highest being the Pradh&n, or chief families; next
the Pardm&niks ; while the rest go to form the Gana, or lower
orders. The last can only intermarry with the higher by paying
a large sum of money, the father receiving in all cases money for his
daughter, so that female children are more valued than among the
true Hindus. Widows never marry, but either earn a livelihood by
selling fish, by manufacturing string, or, if desirous of change of
life and scene, by becoming Boistubis (Yaishnavis).

Tiyars are almost to a man Yaishnava in creed, their religious
___ ceremonies being always held beneath trees,

neugron. The seorhd ( Trophis aspera ), a very common

scrubby plant, is held in especial veneration by them, and its shade
is usually selected as the soene of their worship ; but should this tree
be not at hand, the nim, bel, or guj&li (Shorea robmta) forms an
efficient substitute. Hindustani Tiyars saorifioe a goat to K&li on
the Diw&li, but the animal, instead of being decapitated in the
orthodox Hindu way, is stabbed with a sharp-pointed pieoe of wood
—a praotioe universal among the aboriginal races of India, after
which, as with the Dos&dhs, the flesh is eaten by the worshippers.
Bengali Tiyars, on the other hand, saorifioe a swine to Bura-Buri on
the Baus (JDeoember-J anuary) Sankr&nti, slaughtering it in the same
way as their Hindustani brethren. They do not, however, eat the
flesh. At the Gangd festival in Jeth (May) they offer a white kid.

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TIYAB.

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pigeon and milk to the spirit of the river, and adore with great 1
solemnity ManasA Devi in the month of SrAvan (July- August).

As was natural, the Tiyars have peopled the waters and
streams with beneficent and wicked spirits, whose friendship is to
be secured, and enmity averted, by various religious rites. Along
the banks of the river Lakhya they worship Fir Badr, Khwajah
Khizr, and, in fulfilment of vows, offer through any MusalmAn a
goat to MadAr, whom they regard as a water god, but who may bo
identified with ShAh MadAr Badi’ud din. In stormy weather and
in bad fishing seasons they invoke Klala-KumAri, a naiad, to
whom the first fruits are presented, in the same way as Hindus do to
Lakshmi. In Behar Mang&i Chandi, Jai Singh, and LAI are their
ohief minor gods.

In Purniah Tiyars worship a peculiar deity called Prem RAja
or PamirAj, who, they say, belonged to their tribe and was a celebrated
brigand residing at BahurAgar, in Tirhut. Having been on many
occasions favoured by the deity, he was translated (AprakAsa), and
disappeared along with his boat. In 1864 one Baijua Tiyar gave
out that PamirAj had appeared to him in a vision and ordained that
the Tiyars should cease to be fishermen and devote themselves
instead to oertain religious rites, whioh would procure general pros-
perity. Great excitement ensued, and in February 1865 about
four thousand Tiyars from GhAzipur, Benares, and the adjoining
districts assembled at Gogra, in Purniah, and after offering holy
water to a private idol belonging to Baijua, whioh he said came to
him out of a bamboo post, 3,000 goats were saorifioed. Shortly
afterwards another meeting of the tribe was held in the Benares
district, at which a murder was committed. This movement was
a repetition of a precisely similar one among the DosAdhs of Behar
in 1863, and, like it, was short-lived and unsuccessful.

As is done by all Bengali fishermen, the Jai PAlani, on the
u TilwA ” SankrAnti in MAgh (Januaiy-February), when the sun
enters Capricorn, is observed by the Tiyars. The close time lasts
from two to fifteen days, but the demand for fish being steady, they
catoh on the eve of the festival an extra supply and keep them alive
for purposes of sale, there being no offenoe in selling, although there
is in catching, fish at that period, when prioes being hig£ profits
are unusually good.

In Behar and Bengal generally Tiyars are reokoned impure,
ana along the northern bank of the Ganges
pationf 1 *** 00011 Tiy 8 * 8 employed in manufacturing mats of
the ml reed, and known as Nal Tiyars, are
eonsidered so utterly vile that the fisher Tiyars repudiate any fellow-*
ship with them.

In Dacca the Tiyars occupy an uncertain position, in one part
of the district being pure ana Panoha-varta, having the five Sudrs
servants working for them, while in another, being unclean, these
servants are members of their own caste. Tiyars in Eastern
Bengal are usually fishermen, but where the fishery has become
unproductive, or the river has silted up, they are found cultivating
the soil, keeping shops, and acting as boatmen. They manufacture

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TIYAB.

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TOPPO.

their own nets, but their lone narrow boats, o&lled “ Jalk&,” are
made by Chanda Is.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of
Tiyars in 1872 and 1881

District.

1872.

1881.

District.

1872.

1881.

Bard wan

Bankura

Birbhum

Midnapor

Hughlf

Howrah

24-PaiganAs

Nadiya

Khulna

Jecsore

Murshedabad

Difcaipur

Eajshahye

Rangpur

Born

Pabna

Darjiling

Jalpigon

Kuch Behar

Dacca

Faridpur

Bak&rganj

Miimoniiinh

8,631

807

16,304

} 23,051

40,709

12,423

4,565

12,083

17,364

2,249

141,213

6,530

2,786

7,988

866

696

14,461

8,369
866
1,775
14,090
( 6,687

l 16,623
37,171
2,362
3,823
239
7,735
2,224
2,016
92,790
298
1,253

85,896

64,152

6,654

1,374

15,066

Tipperah ... ...

Chittagong

Nonkhali

Patna

Gya

Shahabad

“ {Sssfisr :::

Saran

Champaran

Monghyr

Pumiah ”

Maldoh

Sant41 Pargan&a ...

Cuttack

Puri

Balasore

Tributary States

Hazaribagh

LohardagA

Singbhum

Manbhum
Tributary States ...

879

1,128

190

1,185

162

242

} 878

1,618

18,014

6,678

18,203

18,717

8,837

541

907

682

1,613

761

i ; 266

1,086

f 130

l 190

2, 60S
434
19,168
4,296
16,040
16,736
2^81
889
876
688
1,615
96
126
128'
498
158.

Tiyar, a sub-caste ofMall&ha
in Behar.

Toeba, flower of pur Ah tree,
a totemistio sept of in

Chota Nagpur*

Toewa, a kind of bird, a
totemistio sept of Mundas in
Chota Nagpur.

Toinya, a sept of Chakm&s in
the Hill Tracts of Chittagong.

Toipd, a rui or sept of Dejong
Lhoris whose ancestor had emi-
grated from South Bhotan.

Toktiham, a sept of the Pan-
thar sub-tribe 01 Limbus in
Darjiling.

Toldngi, a thar or sept of
G tunings in Darjiling.

Tolwar, a section of the
Chhajiti sub-caste of Khatris in
Bengal.

- Tongar, a sept of Surajbansi
B&jputs in Behar.

Tongb£ngboha, a sept of
Limbus in Darjiling.

Tbngdu-Ruishi f the most res-

K (table sub-tribe of Dejong
oris or Bhotias of the south. >

Tongsi, a bird, a totemistio
sept of Mundas in Chota Nag-
pur.

T ono, a big tree-ant, a totem-
istio sept of Mundas in Chota
Nagpur.

* Topna, a tree, a totemistio
sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur*

Tope, a sept of Asuras ; a
section of Khari&s in Chota
Nagpur.

T opoar, a bird with a long tail,
body mottled blaok and white,
a totemistio sept of Mundas^
Oraons, and Loh&rs and a section
of Goraits in Chota Nagpur.

Toppo, a totemistio section of
Turis in Chota Nagpur denoting
a bird.

Digitized by ^.oosle

TOBIL.

332

TUMBANGPHB.

Toril, a section of the 8dt-
mulii Maghayfi sub-oaste of
Kdndufl in Behar.

Toringtapd, a thar or sept of
Mangars in Darjiling.

Tormeg, a thar or sept of
Murmis in Darjiling.

T otdbari, a section of Pdns in
Chota Nagpur.

T otaka, a gAin of the SAndil-
ya gotra of Bdrendra Brahmans
in Bengal.

T OW) a kind of bird, a totem-
istio sept of Mundas in Chota
Nagpur.

T rayodds, a sub-caste of Bdg-
dis found in the 24-Par-
gands, said to have come from
Bankura.

Tribedi, a title of Kanaujid
Brahmans in Behar.

Trikonid, a title of low castes
of the North-Western Provinces
and Panjdb.

Trilokpuria, a section of the
BanodhiA and JaiswAr KalwArs
in Behar.

T ripdthi, a title of the DAkshi-
nAtya Baidik Brahmans in
Bengal.

Tripdti, a section of Utkal
or Orissa Brahmans.

TriprA, a synonym for Tip-
perah.

Teak, a synonym for ChakmA.

Tsakma, a synonym for Chak-
jnA.

Tsegkh»m-pd, tieg, ‘a wall/
and khim, i a house 9 — a dweller in
a stone or walled house, a sub-sept
of the Nah-pa sept of Sherpa
Bhotias.

Tshe-gyu-thah, the family
which sprang from the Buddha
of life, a rut or sept of the Tongdu
sub- tribe of Dejong Lhoris or
Bhotias of the south.

Tshendangkya, he who lives
apart, a sept of the Ahtharai sub-
tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Tsonbang, he who listens and
profits, a sept of the Miakhola
sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Tsong , a synonym for Limbu.

Tsong-zubo, a rui or sept of
Dejong Lhoris, the members of
which are the deoendants of emi-
grants from Bhotan and Nepal.

Tubkd, a section of the Tir-
hutiyA sub-caste of Dorns in
Behar.

Tudi, Tudu, a sept of Hos
and Santals.

Tuduar, hen, a totemistic sept
of Kharwars in Chota Nagpur.

Tukipitd dumurid, dumur fig,
a totemistic section of Kurmis in
Chota Nagpur and Orissa.

Tulatid, a sub-oaste of Telia
in Orissa.

Tulsi, a group of Maghaiya
Telis in Behar.

Tulsiar, a kind of flower, a
totemistio sept of Mundas in
Chota Nagpur.

T umaiid, a section of Kum-
hdrs in Singbhum.

Tumdrung, a totemistio sept of
the Bhumij tribe in Manbhum.

Tumbangphe, the earth-born
or Bhuiphutd y a sept of the Pheddb
sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.
This thar claim to be terra filii ,
and point out a huge rock whioh
covers the spot where their
founder sprang from the earth.

Digitized by {jOOQie

TUMBAPO.

TUBL

Tumbapo, the eldest, a sept
of the P6nthar sub-tribe of
Limbus in Darjiling.

Tumbli, a red flying ant, a
totemistio sept of Mundas and
Kumh&rs in Uhota Nagpur.

Tumbli, Berni, a seotion of
Kumhars in Lohardagd.

Tumbrok, bom of a step-
mother, a sept of the Pdnthar
sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjil-
ing-

Tumkohong, a sept of Lim-
bus in Darjiling.

Tumling, a sept of the Yan-

f orup sub-tribe of Limbus in
tarjiling.

T undak, a seotion of Godlds in
the North-Western Provinces and
Behar.

T undal, a gotra or seotion of
Agarwals.

Tundudr, a tree, a totemistio
sept of Kharwars and Mundas ;
a seotion of Kurmis and Mahilis
in Chota Nagpur and Orissa.

T ungd, a sub- caste of Karang&s
and of M&ls in Midnapur and
Manbhum.

Tungbai, a sept of Tipperahs
in the Hill Tracts of Chittagong.

Tungjainya, a sub-tribe of
Chakm&s in the Hill Tracts of
Chittagong.

Tungohong, the discontented,
a sept of the Chhothar sub-tribe
of Iambus in Darjiling.

Tunru, a totemistio seotion of
M&hilis in Manbhum, the mem-
bers of which will not touoh or
cut the grass which the name
denotes.

Tuntid Kaibartta, a sub-caste
of Kaibarttas in Bengal who
cultivate mulberry and rear silk
cocoons, and produoe all sorts of
vegetables wnioh their women
sell in the market.

Tura, a sept of Bairdgis in
Chota Nagpur.

^uriha, a low oaste who blow
horns and play on flutes.

T urdhd, Turhdy a sub-caste of
Kdhdrs who carry palanquins, sell
fish and fresh fruit and cultivate ;
a sub-caste of Nunids.

Turania, a sept of Mundas in
Chota Nagpur.

Turha 9 players on the wind
instrument oalled turhi.

a non- Aryan caste of cultivators, workers in bamboo,
and bosket-makers in Chota Nagpur. The
physioal type of the Turis, their language, and
their religion, plaoe it beyond doubt that they are a Hinduised
ofEshoot of the Mundas. In Lohardagd, where the caste is most
numerous, it is divided into four sub-castes — Turi or Kisdn-Turi,
Or, Dom, and Domrd— distinguished by the particular modes of
basket and bamboo-work which they practise. Thus the Turi or
Kisan-Turi, who are also cultivators and hold bhuinhdri land, make
the sup 9 a winnowing sieve made of sirM, the upper joint of
Saccharum procerum ; the tokri or tokiy&y a large open Dasket of split
bamboo twigs woven up with the fibre of the leaves of the tdl
palm; the sair and nadttdy used for catching fish. The Ors are
said to take their name from the oriyd basket used by the sower,
and made of split bamboo sometimes helped out with tdl fibre. They

Digitized by LjOOQle

TURI.

334

also make umbrellas, and the chhotka dali or ddld y a flat basket with
vertical sides used for handling grain in small quantities. Dorns
make the harka and scale-pans ( tardju ). Domras make the peti
and fans. Turis frequently reckon in as a fifth sub-caste the Birhors,
who out bamboos and make the sikds used for carrying loads slung
on a shoulder-yoke (bahangi), and a kind of basket oalled phanda.
Dorns and Domris speak Hindi ; Turis, Ors, and Birhors use among
themselves a dialect of Mund&ri. All these sub-castes profess to be
strictly endogamous ; but a Turi can marry the daughter of an Or
provided that she is formally admitted into the Turi sub-caste. This
is effected by her lover giving a feast to the leading men of the local
caste community. Members of other castes who have taken to them-
selves Turi women and have been ejected from their own group
may be admitted on similar terms.

The sections of the Turis shown in Appendix are for the most
. part totemistio, and correspond closely with

armge * those in force among the Mund&s. The rule of

exogamy extends only to a man’s own section, and is supplemented
by the standard table of prohibited degrees. Except in Hinduised
and comparatively wealthy families, whose tendency is to affect
infant-marriage, girls usually marry as adults. Free courtship is
reoognized, and sexual license before marriage tolerated. Both
youths and maidens are said, however, to lead purer lives than
the Oraons, owing, it is suggested, to the fact that they do not
frequent the dancing ground ( dkhra ), and are thus less exposed to the
temptations of the flesh. Before a marriage can be celebrated the
consent of the heads of the MadalwAr and 8urinw&r sections, who are
known respectively as R&ja and Thakur, is obtained, and a bride-
price of Its. 2-8 is paid. The village pdhan attends, and the head of
the CharchAgiyA seotion officiates as priest. Sindurddn is the binding
.portion of the ceremony. Polygamy is permitted, the only limit to
the number of wives a man may have being his ability to maintain
them. A widow may marry again by the sugai form, and it is usual
-for her to marry her husband’s younger brother if there is one.
Sindur is not used in the sagai ceremony as practised by the Turis.
The essential points are the consent of the chief relatives and the
presentation to the bride of a new doth and a lao armlet. Divoroe
is allowed, and divorced women may marry again.

The original religion of the Turis is beyond doubt closely akin
Retorfon. ^ orm animism current among the

Mundas and described at length in the artiole
on that tribe. In many villages, indeed, they hold the offioe of pdhan.
Baranda Bhut and Bura-Buri are held in special reverenoe. Of late
years large numbers of Turis have embraoed the tenets of the deistio
sect, known to its members as Sri-Narayani, from the name of God,
and to outsiders as Siva-Narayani, from the name of its founder,
a RAjput of Ghazipur, who lived early in the eighteenth oentury.
These, however, who call themselves Sri-NArayan Pan this, have by
no means broken with the animistio faith of their ancestors, and in
cases of illness have recourse to the regular aboriginal methods on
propitiating the spirit who is believed to be afflioting them.

Digitized by

Google

TUBL

335

TUT1EAE.

Turis will eat cooked food with Mund&s and Oraons, take
* , . sweetmeats from Ahirs and Telis, and water

from the Or sub-caste. They will smoke only
with members of their own sub-caste. For the rest they are as lax
in matters of diet as the Mundas and Oraons. Sri-Nariyanis
abstain from beef, from the flesh of animals which have died a
natural death, and from spirituous liquors.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of
Turis in 1872 and 1881 : —

District.

1872.

1881.

District.

1872.

1881

Bardwan

Birbhom ...

Midnapur

Hughli ...

Howrah

S4-Parganifl

Nadiya

Jessore

Horshedabad

Dinajpur ..

fiajshahye

} «

S36

472

{ 51

1,864
447
78
17
492
46

Rangpur

Bogra

Pabna

Faridpor

Maimansinh

Ohittaaoog ... ...

Haxaribagh

Lohardagi

Singbhnm

Manbhum ...

Tributary 8tatea

y - : jap: : : :

r «• r :

171

125

17,629

6,680

255

1,455

Turi or Dakhind , a sub-caste
of Dorns in Behar.

Turiar, a sept of Agarics in
Chota Nagpur.

Turk-Bhdt, a sub-caste of
Bh&ts.

T urkia, a sub-caste of Telis in
Behar, who are Mahomedans.

Turkic or Shekh,a sub-caste
of Mahomedan Dhobis in Behar.

T urk-Kumh&r, a class of
Mahomedan Kumh&rs in Behar.

T urk-Nauwd, a olass of Ma-
homedan barbers in Behar.

Turk Pdsi, a sub-caste of
P&sis in Behar who are Mahom-
edan by religion.

T urku, a sub-sept of the Saren
sept of Santals.

T urman, a section of the
ChhajAti sub-caste of Khatris in
Bengal.

Tursia, a sept of Mundas in
Chota Nagpur.

Turu, squirrel, a totemistio
sept of Mundas and Bedi&s
in Chota Nagpur; a section of
Mahilis.

T uruar, pdkur fruit, a totemis-
tio sept of Kharwars and Mundas
in Chota Nagpur.

T uruwar, a section of Cheros
in Palamau.

T uti, a bird, a totemistio sept
of Bhumijs, Mundas, and Khar-
wars in Chota Nagpur ; a section
of Kharids.

T ut i ear, a section of Mahilis
in Chota Nagpur.

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TJBEE.

336

ulabk:

Uber, a mul or section of the
Maghayd sub-caste of Kdndus in
Behar.

Ubhar, a mul or section of the
Chhamulid Madhesid sub- caste of
Halw&is in Behar.

Uchchharakhi, a gdin of the
Bharadwdja gotra of Bdrendra
Brahmans in Bengal.

Uchring, an insect, a totem-
istio sept of Mundas in Gbota
Nagpur.

Udadhi, a section of Mdlos in
Eastern Bengal.

Udaniydr, a pur or section of
Sdkadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Uddsi, Udasin, a religious
mendicant ; a title of Brahmans
and Sannydsis ; an indifferent
person; a stranger. In Census

f apers may either be a variant for
Jdasin, or may merely mean that
the persons enumerated under
this title described themselves as
strangers (udasin), and the word
was taken to be a caste desig-
nation.

Udbaru, a tree, a totemistio
sept of Mundas in Chota Nag-
pur.

Uddhabi, a sub-caste of
Tdntis in Bengal.

Udhmatid, a section of Ka-
naujid Lohdrs in Behar.

Udwar, water cat, a totemistio
sept of Lohdrs in Chota Nag-
pur.

Uengsa, a sept of Maghs in
the Hill Traots of Chittagong.

Ugahar, a mul or section of
the Chhamulid Madhesid sub-
oaste of Halwais in Behar.

Ugraihatri , a synonym for
Aguri.

Uh, a sub sept of the Hemrom
sept of Santals.

Ujdin, a sept of the Suraj-
bansi division of Bdjputs in
Behar.

Ujaid, a gdin or sub-section of
Saptasati Brahmans in Bengal.

Ujhd or Ojhd, a sub-caste of
Bagdis in Western Bengal, pro-
bably descended from the priests
of the tribal gods, who would
naturally tend to form themselves
into a sub-caste.

Ujhd f Ojhd, or Jhd, a title of
Maithil Brahmans in Behar.

Ujini, a group of the Fateh-
sing Telis iu Murshedabad.

TJjliy a synonym for Dhobi in
Behar.

Ukhar, a group of the Aoghfir
sect of Saiva asoetios founded in
Guzerat by a Dasndmi mendi-
cant named Brahmagiri. For a
fuller account of the sect, see
Aoghar.

Ukniydi, a thar or seotion of
Nepdli Brahmans.

Uksarri, a sept of Chakmds
in the Hill Tracts of Chitta-
gong.

Uldrk, a pur or seotion of
Sdkadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Digitized by {jOOQie

ULIT.

837

DTX.ULI.

Ulit, a sept of Rijputs in
Behar.

Ulluk, a ghin or sub-section of
Saptasati Brahmans in Bengal.

Ulwir, a mul or section of the
Naomulii or Majraut sub-oaste
of Goilis in Behar.

Umatwir, a section of Bib-
bans in Behar.

Umethwir, a mul or section
of the Naomulii or Majraut sub-
oaste of Goilis in Behar.

Unain, a mul or section of the
Ayodhii sub-oaste of Hajjims in
Behar.

Undhil, a section of Goilis in
Behar.

Undhuri, a gdtn of the Sibar-
na gotra of Birendra Brahmans
in Bengal.

Upidhy&ya, a sub-oaste of
Utkal Brahmans in Orissa; an
endogamous division of Nepili
Brahmans ; a title of Kanaujii
and Saraswat Brahmans and of
Bibhans in Behar.

Upamanya, a section of Brah-
mans.

Uphaltopi, a thar at section of
Nepili Brahmans.

Uranga , ! Uraun, a synonym
for Oraon.

Urd&gainhi, a section of the
Biyihnt and Kharidihi Kalwirs
in Behar.

Urdwar, a sept of Mundas in
Chota Nagpur.

Urtar, a sept of Kharwars in
Chota Nagpur.

< Uring, a wild bird, a totemis-
tio sept of Mundas in Chota
Nagpur.

UriyS, a sub-oaste of Pods.

Uriyd Dhobi, a sub-caste of
Dhobis in Orissa.

Uriyi-K&etj a synonym for
Karan.

Urmakhori, a sept of Pins
in Chota Nagpur.

Urmakulii a section of Pins in
Chota Nagpur.

Urmi, a wave; a title of
Jiliyas in Bengal.

Urunti, a thar or sept of
Ourungs in Darjiling who burn
their dead on a lull top and then
throw the ashes in the air.

Urwir, a pur or section of
Sikadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Usahiyirk, a pur or section of
Sikadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Usauth, a section of the Karan
sub-oaste of Kiyasths in Behar.

Us rim, a mul or section of the
Naomulii or Majraut sub-caste
of Goilis in Behar.

Utamapur, a section of the
Karan Kiyasths in Behar.

Utardihi, a mul at section of
the Maghayi sub-oaste of Kin-
dus in Behar.

Utkal, a territorial division of
the Pancha Gaura Brahmans,
deriving its name from the Pro-
vince of Utkala or Odra (Orissa).

Utkuli, a thar or seotion of
Nepili Brahmans.

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UTTABA-8BENI.

338

UTTAB-BAEHI.

Uttara-Sreni, a territorial
group of Brahmans in Orissa.

Uttar-Birendra, an endogam-
ons division of the BArendra
Brahmans in Bengal.

Uttard&hA, a section of the
SAtmuliA MaghayA sub-caste of
KAndus in Behar.

UttarhA, a sub-caste of TAntis
in Behar.

Uttar iy&, a sub-caste of Dorns
in 8outh Behar who work in
tirki, and regard this as an

important distinction between
themselves and the MaghayA
Dorns who work with bamboos.

Uttar-Kab&t, north gate, a
title of KhandAits in Orissa.

Uttarkul, a group of the
Aswini Tantis in BengaL

Uttar-RArhi, a sub-caste of
KAyasths in Bengal ; of KAmArs
in the 24-Parganas ; of ChAsA-
dhobas and NApits ; a group of
I the Hole Kaibarttas and of BarA-
1 bhAgiyA Muohis in BengaL

. I

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Google

VAIDIKA.

339

VAISHNAVA.

a group of the Srotriya sub-oaste
of Utkal Brahmans in Orissa.

Vaidika, one of the five main
sub-castes of Bengal Brahmans ;

Baishtaby Bairigi , a religious sect based upon the
worship of Vishnu under the incarnations of Rama and Krishna.
Founded as a popular religion by Rimanuja in Madras, and
developed in Northern India by Rimanand and Kabir, Vaishnavism
owes its wide acceptance in Bengal to the teaching of Chaitanya,
a Vaidik Brahman of Nadiya at the beginning of the 16th century.
The contemplative devotion inculcated by this teacher as the ideal of
the religious life was transformed by Vallabha-Swdmi into
emotional longings of a more sensuous type. The seots now included
under the general name Vaishnava are the following

(1) RAm&nuja, comprising three grades of disciples: the Brah-

. maoharya, or novice ; Upa Kurwdna, who lives

uja “ as an udasi in the house of his guru ; and the

Naisthika, who practises a life-long asceticism. When undergoing
the initiatory rite (tapta-mudr&), the disciple is marked with the
sankha or conoh-shell of Vishnu on the left shoulder and the chakra
or wheel on the right, the stamp used being made of eight metals
(ashta-dh&tu), gold, silver, copper, brass, tin, lead, iron, and zinc.
R&m£nujas are most punctilious about the privacy of their meals, and
should any one see or speak to them while they are eating, the food
is either thrown away or buried. Silken or woollen garments, not
ootton, must be worn at meals, and no one may taste food without
permission of the guru. R&m&nujas will only eat food cooked by
a Brahman of their own seot, but they do not reject articles prepared
with ghi by a R&mavat. They will not touch food oooked by
a Kulin Brahman of Bengal, nor will they take water from the
hands of a man of that caste.

(2) R&m&vat, a Hindustani seot, reoruited mainly from among

Rimiv&t Kanaujiyi Brahmans, though persons of other

castes are occasionally received on the under-
standing that it is opeh to any member of the seot to decline to eat
with them. Vishnu or Rama-Chandra is the patron god of the com-
munity, but in some oases his worship has been supplanted by that of
Hari, who is identified with Krishna. Brind&ban is the head-quarters
of those who revere the latter, and Ajodhya of those who adhere to
the worship of R&ma. Their sacred books are the R&m&yana, the
Sri Bhagavat, and the Bh&gavat-Gita. Most of them, however, are
very illiterate, and of those who can blunder through a Nagari book,
few understand what they read. Pilgrimage is believed to be the chief
duty of the seot. The Tapasi or penitential order of R&m&vats,
erroneously styled Jogis, a term properly reserved for Saiva ascetics,
wander through India almost naked, smeared over with ashes
and stupefied with ganja, living on alms, but lodging with no
one and taking shelter under trees, in ruins, or among tombs

y 2

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VAISHNAVA.

340

in preferenoe to entering a human habitation. A rope round the
waist and a soanty doth round the loins form their sole attire.
A few shave the head and beard, but most allow their hair to grow,
and twist their matted looks round the head like a turban, or roll
them into ooils terminating in a large knot or ohignon over the left
ear. They wear neoklaoes of rudrdksha wood (Elceocarpu* gianitrus)
containing seventeen, nineteen, twenty-one, fifty-four or a hundred
and eight beads, and when indulging in long fits of abstraction,
they support themselves with a bamboo orutoh. At initiation a
new oonvert is enrolled in a so-called * gotra,’ bearing the name
Aiohittra ; but as all R&m&vats belong to this, and in theory celibacy
is strictly enjoined, the procedure is a mere form, and has no bearing
on marriage or the relations of the sexes. K&m&vat Sadhus are
notorious for their dissolute and lioentious character, and for their
exoessive indulgence in g&nja, a drug whioh they smoke systemati-
cally in order to induoe the dreamy sensual reverie regarded by them
as the highest manifestation of religious sentiment. All forms of
worship, exoept the unoeasing repetition of the name Rdma or Hari,
are deemed useless, but in every &kh&r& or monastery of the sect
an idol is tended at regular hours to the sound of sankh shells and
gongs, while offerings of flowers and fruit are presented by the laity.
A tulsi plant in the courtyard and a Sdlagram in the shrine com-
plete the religious furniture of the establishment.

(3) Nimavati recruited from among Hindustani Brahmans or

members of those castes from whose hands

a Brahman can take water. The mark of a
Nimavat is a circular blaok patch on the forehead between two
parallel yellow streaks. Mathuri and Jaipur are their most sacred
plaoes of pilgrimage, and the Bh&gavat-Git& is their chief religious
book. The ohief duty of the Biraktas or monastio members of the
sect is to prepare and offer to the idols kept in the &kh&r& bhog or
food consisting of rice and pulse boiled together. Four times a day
this oompound is laid before the god, and is then eaten by the mahant
and his disciples. The idols usually worshipped by Nimavats are
Jagann&th, Madan-Gop&l, KAdhA-Krishna, Balar&m, and Subhadri,
the sister of Krishna.

(4) Vaishnava, oolloquially Baishtarn, of Bengal, a dass not

TU , a|ifam very easy to define precisely, as the name Vaish-

nava includes (a) ordinary Hindus who, with
out deserting their original caste, worship Vishnu in preferenoe to
other gods, (b) ascetic members of the Vaishnava seot, oommonly
called Bair&gi, (c) Jdt- Baishtarn, 8amyogi, or B&ntasi, an endogamous
group formed by the oonversion to Vaishnavism of members of
many different castes. It will be convenient here to treat first of
the last-mentioned group. The Baishtarn caste inoludes members
of several Vaishnava sects, and in theory intermarriage between
these sects is prohibited. But if a man of one sect wishes to marry
a woman of another seot, he has only to oonvert her by a simple
ritual to his own seot, and the obstacles to their union are removed.
Baishtams have no gotras , but they are divided into fifteen
sections ( paribir ), supposed to be descended from the principal

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VAISHNAVA.

disciples of Chaitanya, such as Adwaita-Parib&r, Nity 4n an da-ParibAr,
Aoh4rya-ParibIr, Byfim Ch4nd, Jagadish Pandit, Gad4dhar Pandit,
Bakkeswar Pandit, Adhiram Gop4l, etc. Although these groups
are supposed to stand to the Baishtams in the plaoe of gotras ,
marriage between persons belonging to the same panbdr is not
forbidden, and the grouping has no more effect on marriage than
the ?ua**-endogamous division into sects referred to above. Outsiders
are freely admitted into the community, however low their caste
may be, provided only that they are Hindus. Chaitanya is said
to have extended this privilege even to Mahomedans, but sinoe
his time the tendenoy has been rather to contract the limits of
the society, and no guru or mathdhdri (superintendent of a
monastery) would now venture on suoh an act. The ceremony of initia-
tion is simple. The guru or mathdhdri, known on this occasion
by the title of Bhek-gosain, * the ascetio of alms, 1 after worshipping
Chaitanya, gives to the convert a string (dort), a piece of cloth (kaupin)
just sufficient to cover his nakedness, and a bdhirbdsh , a larger
doth, to wear round his loins over the kaupin . At the same time
he whispers in his ear the mantra or sacred word, usually a mono-
syllable, indicating a name or attribute of a god or goddess, whioh
is to guide him through life and must never be divulged to any one.
The novice then bows down, and a small necklaoe of wooden beads is
hung round his neck, and a karanga or ooooanut shell given him
for the purpose of collecting alms.

Baistams profess to marry their daughters as infants, and this
' may be taken to be the rule of the caste,
Mamag8# although in many instances it is departed from,

as might be expeoted in a community comprising so many hetero-
geneous elements. Sexual intercourse before marriage is not visited
by any social penalties, nor are girls who have led an immoral life
turned out of the caste. Only before they can be formally married,
they must again pass through the ceremony of initiation described
above. The standard Hindu ritual is not observed in marriage, A
guru or gosain presents to Chaitanya flowers and sandal wood paste,
and lays before him offerings of mdisdbhog , a compound of rice, fruits
and other articles. Hymns ( sanktrtan ) in honour of Krishna and
Chaitanya are then sung to an accompaniment of the mridanga , an
elongated drum, tapering towards the ends, and the kartdl or brass
cymbal. The guardian of the girl takes her right hand in his and
gives it to the bridegroom, and the couple exchange small garlands
of flowers and necklaoes of beads. Sankirtan is sung onoe more,
and the oeremony is over. Its essential and binding portion is
the exchange of flowers or beads, technically known as kanthi-badaL
Widows may many again (sangd), and are in no way restricted
in the selection of their seoond husband, exoept that they may not
marry within the prohibited degrees originally forbidden to them.
The ritual is the same as that described above, exoept that no one
fives away the bride. For a widow, as for a virgin, kanthi-badal
is held to be the binding portion of the oeremony. Divorce is
permitted at the option of either party, and divorced persons
of either sex may marry again

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VAISHNAVA.

342

Krishna is the tutelary deity of the oaste, and most Baishtams
worship him exclusively and disregard the
glon * other gods of the Hindu system. They also

worship Chaitanya as the latest incarnation of Vishnu, Nityananda
as Balarim, and Adwaita as an incarnation of Siva. The following
gurus rank as patron saints : — Swarup GoswAmi, SanAtan, Bhatta
Baghunath, Srijiba, Gopal Bhatta, and Das RaghunAth. To them
are presented flowers of any colour but red, paste of sandal wood,
tulsi leaves, mdhdbhog , parched rioe, curds, sugar, cakes and sweet-
meats of various kinds. Boiled rioe and vegetable curry are some-
times offered. BAuls offer fish, and members of the NerA-neri sect
masur ddl seasoned with onion. The twelfth day of every month
and janmashtami , the birthday of Krishna, are the proper times for
suoh offerings. The KartA BhajAs, however, hold Friday to be
especially 6aored. After being laid before the god, the offerings
are distributed among the worshippers present on the oooasion.
Although Baishtams do not consider it necessary to employ Brah-
mans for religious or ceremonial purposes, the gurus and goswAmis
who look after the religion of the caste are in fact usually members
of the sacred order. But as their spiritual disciples oome from low
castes, and they themselves eat in their disciples’ houses and take
water from their hands, it follows that Baishtam Brahmans are not
received on equal terms by the Brahmans who 6erve the higher castes,
and the latter would as a rule decline to eat cooked food which
had been touched by a Baishtam Brahman.

Baishtams bury their dead in a sitting posture. Eaoh of the
BuriaL several sects included in the caste is supposed

un to have a separate burial ground of its own ;

but it is not an uncommon practioe to bury the dead within the
precincts of the homestead. No regular sraddh is performed;
Chaitanya is worshipped, and mdhdbhog is offered seven or eight days
after death, and the relations of the deoeased then indulge in a feast
to show that the time of mourning is over.

Baishtams eat cooked food only with people of their own caste ;

but they take water and sweetmeats from, and
is ® m smoke out of the same hookah with, men of
almost all castes except Muchis and sweepers. Their sooial standing
is low, as the oaste is recruited from among all classes of society, and
large numbers of prostitutes and people who have got into trouble in
eonsequenoe of sexual irregularities are found among their ranks.
They have no characteristic occupation, and follow all professions
deemed respectable by middle class Hindus.

In the district of Midnapore the organization of the Baishtam
oaste seems to differ in some points from that described above. Two
endogamous classes are recognized— (1) Jati-Baishnab, consisting
of those whose conversion to Vaishnavism dates baok beyond living
memory, and (2) ordinary Baishnabs, called also BhekdhAri or
* wearers of the garb,’ who are supposed to have adopted Vaishnavism
at a recent date. The former are men of substanoe, who have con-
formed to ordinary Hinduism to such an extent that they are now
Baishnabs in little more than name. In the matter of marriage they

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343

YAISHNAVA.

follow the usages of the Nabasakha ; they bum their dead ; mourn
for thirty days; celebrate the sraddh, and employ high caste Brahmans
to officiate for them for religious aud ceremonial purposes. They do
not intermarry or eat with the Baishnabs who have been reoently
converted. The latter are described to me by a correspondent as
u the scum of the population. Those who are guilty of adultery or
incest, and in consequence find it inconvenient to live as members
of the castes to which they belong, embrace Yaishnavism, first, because
they can by so doing place themselves beyond the pale of the influence
of the headmen of their castes, and secondly, beoause their conversion
removes all obstacles to the continuance of the illicit or incestuous
connexions which they have formed.” ■:

With this attempt to define the extent to which Yaishnavism
_ has developed into a caste, we may pass on to

osaxm notice the more purely religious aspeots of the

Yaishnava community. Tradition has it that when Ohaitanya died,
his most zealous disciples formed a society consisting of six Gosains,
eight Kabirajs, and sixty-four Mahants to organize the new teach-
ing and to make proselytes throughout Bengal. In oonrse of time
there arose three great centres of the faith — Khardaha, between
Caloutta and Barrackpur, the home of the Gosains or religious
mendioants who traoed their descent from Nity&nanda, a devoted
disoiple of Ohaitanya ; S&ntipur, on the river Bhagirathi in Nadiya,
where Adwaitananda or Adwaita, another zealous disoiple, had
settled ; and Saidabad, in Murshedabad, the residence of Birbhadra,
the son of Nity4nanda. The Gosains or “ Gentoo bishops,” as
they were oalled by Mr. Holwell, have now beoome the hereditary
leaders of the seot. Most of them are prosperous traders and
money-lenders, enriohed by the gifts of the laity and by the in-
heritance of all property left by* Bairagis. They marry the daughters
of Srotriya and Bansaja Brahmans, and give their daughters to
Kulins, who, however, deem it a dishonour to marry one of their
girls to a Gosain. As a rule, they are tall and well-made men, of
light complexion, fair specimens of the Aryan type as found in.
Bengal. The Adwaitananda Gosains admit to the Yaishnava commu-
nity only Brahmans, Baidyas, and members of those oastes from whose
hands a Brahman may take water. The Nity&nanda, on the other
hand, maintain that any suoh limitation is opposed to the teaohing of
Ohaitanya, and open the door of fellowship to all sorts and conditions
of men, be they Brahmans or Ohandils, high caste widows or common
prostitutes. The Nitytnanda are very popular among the lower oastes,
and hold a leading position among Yaishnavas. A paryah or silver
hand is the badge of the family. The Gosains themselves worship
Durgi, but their disciples do not follow them in this. They observe
the birthday of Ohaitanya on the 13th Phalgun, the Govardhan Fuji
on the first day of the new moon in Kartik, and the Diwali on the
night of the K&li Puja. The Adwaitananda Gosains are highly
esteemed by the upper classes of Bengal, and it is very unusual for
a Brahman or Baidya to enrol himself in the ranks of the other,
branch. They are said to be more sinoere and more open to religious
motives than the Nityinanda, and they avoid muoh scandal by
refusing to initiate women.

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VAISHUAVA.

344

Far the purpose of making proselyte* and
Yaiabnaya churoh, Bengal is divided into circle*, es

• i n • >ii • • i* ii n

to interfere. Under the Gosain is the adhtkdri or superintendent, who
sots as deputy, initiates disoiples within a certain area, and oolleets
fees. Under him again is th efaiyddr, oalled also khuro or uncle (the
Oosain being the father), whose business it is to beat up proselytes,
and whose activity is stimulated bv a peroentage of the fees. Lastly
comes the chhoriddr, or usher of the rod, who is merely the messen-
ger of the fatyd&r. Persons who join the Yaishnava communion
pay a fee of twenty annas, sixteen of which go to the Gosain
and four to the favjddr.

The mendioant members of the Vaishnava community, as dis-
__ _ tinguiBhed from the JAt-Baisbnabs or Grihi-

011 ™ Baishnabs on the one hand and the governing

body of Gosains on the other, are, says Dr. Wise, “ of evil repute,
their ranks being recruited by those who have no relatives, by widows,
by individuals too idle or depraved to lead a steady working life, and
by prostitutes. Vaishnavi, or Baishtabi according to the vulgar
pronunciation, has come to mean a courtesan. A few undoubtedly
Join from sinoere and worthy motives, but their numbers are too
small to produce any appreciable effeot on the behaviour of their
comrades. The habits of these beggars are very unsettled. They
wander from village to village, and from one AkhAra to another,
fleecing the frugal and industrious peasantry on the plea of religion,
and singing songs in praise of Hari beneath the village tree, or
shrine. Mendioants of both sexes smoke Indian hemp (garyd), and
although living as brothers and sisters, are notorious for licentious-
ness. There is every reason for suspecting that infanticide is
common, as children are never seen. In the oourse of their wander-
ings they entice away unmarried girls, widows, and even married
women, on the pretext of visiting Sri Kshetra (JagannAth), Brinda-
ban, or Benares, for which reason they are shunned by all respect-
able natives, who gladly give oharity to be rid of them.

The following aooount of an annual religious gathering in Bengal
discloses the true character of these disreputable mendioants. Amid
theruinsof ancient Gaur are large reservoirs of water, oalled Bupa and
S&nAtan, after the two distinguished Mahomedans converted by
Chaitanya, on the banks of which the ‘ BAs MelA,’ or 1 Prem talA,’
i.e., real love, festival is held in the month of June. Crowds of

BairAgis and BairAgins resort to this fair from all parts of Bengal,
the latter being seated in long rows with their faoes covered.
Should a BairAgi be in search of a companion, he pays the customary
fee to the faujddr and a selection is made. He leads the female
aside, raises her veil, and if satisfied takes her away, otherwise he
refuses to allow another ohoioe, unless the twenty-annas fee is again
paid. It is a law with these licentious BairAgis that a man cannot
put away the woman selected, even for adultery, until the next
year’s gathering oomee round ”

(5) BAyAn-KAupfna, a sect of Yaishnavas, so oalled because,
. contrary to the usual custom, they wear the

j * f** kaupin or loin doth fastened on the left side

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VAI8HNAVA

instead oi on the right. The story goes that a guru while
initiating a disoipl© tied the kaupin on the left side d; y mistake.
He was about to ohange it when the novice insisted that Krishna
himself must have pre-ordained the error, refused to have it corrected,
and, going forth as he was, founded the BayAn-K&upini sect. The
members worship RAdhA-Krishna, but they are said to abstain from
the immoral practices usually laid to the oharge of those who worship
th jfy union of the male and female principles. BAyAn-KAupinas
abstain from flesh, fish and intoxicants, and only women of moral
character are allowed to be initiated.

(6) Kisori-Bhajana, 1 maiden-worshippers, f or SAhuja, a sect of

# . _ Vaishnavas concerning whose beliefs and ritual

Kison- j&na. jj. jg diflScolt to get any very precise inform-
ation. The members seem to be aware that the equivocal name of
their community lays them open to the suspicion of sexual immora-
lity, and they are said to ward off curious inquiries by placing
a book or an article of common use in a conspicuous part of the
house and worshipping it as a symbol of their faith. The sect is
supposed to be an offshoot of the RAdhA-Ballabhi, or, according
to another aooount, of the Spashta-DAyaka. The latter view is
improbable. A Spashta-DAyaka will not look upon a woman or
take food from her; while the Kisori-Bhajana makes woman the
chief object of worship. The sect is peouliar in having no UdAsi
or mendicant class. Ine guru or praduAn initiates neophytes and
conducts all religious servioes. The cult is said to be popular,
especially with women and with the Sunri caste, and to have a large
number of adherents. No distinctions of rank are reoognized, and
all oonverts, whether Brahmans or ChandAls, enter upon a footing
of entire equality.

According to Dr. Wise, “ at the initiation of a disciple a mantra,
consisting of the word 4 Hang-sha,’ is whispered into his ear, and is
believed to possess a certain mystioal meaning, the first syllable
typifying the air breathed, the latter the air expired. An indecent
soene, in which a naked woman sits on the knee of the neophyte, is
then rehearsed, as a crucial test of his having mortified the flesh and
its lusts, and of his having become a worthy candidate for admission.

44 The chief oeremony resembling the RAsmandalis of the
MahArAjas of Bombay, which they have styled 4 carnal love
meetings/ is celebrated in a suitable room, where a long strip of
white doth is spread on the floor with plantain leaves laden with
fish and rice, while flesh and spirits never appear.

“ The feast being over, songs in honour of RAdhA- Krishna are
chanted with the effect of often causing extravagant and violent
excitement, terminating in hysterioal weeping and convulsions. The
pradhAn then seleots a woman, possibly the prettiest; the pair are
dusted with sandal wood powder, crowned with flowers, and the
company make adoration to them as the personations of RAdhA and
her lover Krishna. Eaoh man present then deoorates himself
with garlands, perfect silenoe being observed, and is presumed to
fall into a dreamy sensuous condition, with mind abstracted and
absorbed in the contemplation of the semblance of RAdhA at his
aide.”

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VAISHNAVA.

(7) Jagat-Moh&ni, an obscure sect founded about two centuries

. ago by one Jagat-Mohan of Mashulia in Silhet.

Jagat-Moham. The morals of its members are said to be

exemplary. Women are not allowed to live in the monasteries, and
the men are expelled on second conviction of immorality. As in
most Vaishnava sects, there are two classes of votaries— the Giihi
and Bairigi, the former being house-holders, and the latter wander-
ing about the oo untry as beggars. The latter may not eat fish or
flesh, and may not smoke ganja or tobacco or drink spirits. Corpses
are usually thrown into a river, not burned, and burial is only
resorted to at the express wish of a dying mahant. In such cases
the patient is lowered into the grave before he actually dies, as it is
considered lucky for him to die in situ.

(8) Spashta D&yaka, said to have been founded by one Bup

a _ t Ram KabirAj, a disciple of Krishna Chandra

Spa8hU D4yftka - Chakravartti of Baidabad. Although E£dh4

Krishna is the principal object of worship, the members of the seot
affeota high standard of morality, and decline to take !food that has
been cooked by a woman. Women are admitted to the mantra , but
not to the bhek . All castes including ChandAls are enrolled, but
a preference is shown for the pure Sudras, from whose hands a Brah-
man may take water. The Spashta Dayaka take alms from any
Hindus, and even from Mahomedans, but rejeot the offerings of
prostitutes and of ChamArs. They may not touoh flesh or fish, or eat
with any one not a member of their communion. They will not eat
with BairAgi Yaishnavas, but in this case the objections are said to be
mutual. Their sectarian mark is a smear of ochre (Gopi Chandan)
on the nose with two narrow lines drawn upwards to the roots of the
hair. The sacred name of Hari is stamped on the temples, arms,
chest, and shoulders. The dead are buried in a sitting posture, with
a cloth (namd-bali) stamped with the name Hari wrapped round the
head : the arms are folded across the chest, a necklace is hung round
the neck, and a oocoanut shell ( karanka), a wallet and a staff (< ianda )
are placed by the side. If the dead man has had influence in the
seot, and has left behind him many disciples, an AkhArA is built over
his grave, religious rites are performed at his tomb, and his spirit is
invoked for aid on occasions of trouble.

(9) Kavi-Indra Parib&r, a small Vaishnava sect, claiming to be
v -t A t> ux the ParibAr or attendants of Vishnu DAs Kavi

a. i m an r. one of the original sixty-four mahants

who went out into the world to teach the doctrines of Chaitanya.
The story is that this Vishnu DAs affected great humility and made
a point of eating the leavings of Chaitanya’s food. One day the
teacher left nothing on his plate, and the disciple seeking to abase
himself had to make the best of a grain of rice which Chaitanya had
spat out. This he swallowed without noticing that it was tinged
with blood. A rival observed this, and seeing his opportunity put
to Chaitanya the question what should be done to a disoiple who
tasted the blood of his guru. Chaitanya unwarily answered that he
should be excommunicated, and as the judgment could not be
recalled, Vishnu DAs had to leave the original community and set

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VAISHNAVA*

up a dissenting society oi his oWn. The doctrines of the Kavi Indra
are much the same as those of the Vaishnavas. The offioe of mahant,
however, is elective, not hereditary, and can only be held by a Sudra.
There is no Bairiigi or Udasi grade, and all the members are family
men. All castes are admitted into the seot, and even Srotriya
Brahmans are said to be occasionally enrolled as members.

(10) B&ola (Sansk. Vdyula, crazed or inspired), a generio

term including a number of disreputable men-
BAoia. dioant orders which have separated from the

main body of Vaishnavas, and are reoruited mainly from among
the lower castes. They call themselves Nitya, Chaitanya, and Han
D&s B&olas, after the great Vaishnava teachers. Differing from each
other in minute points of ceremonial and social observance, the Baola
eeota agree in regarding pilgrimage to Vaishnava shrines as a sacred
duty, and reverence the Gosains as their spiritual leaders. Flesh
and strong drink are forbidden, but fish is deemed lawful food, and
ganjd is freely indulged in. B&olas never shave or cut their hair,
and filthiness of person ranks as a virtue among them. L&du-Gop&l,
or the child Krishna, is the favourite object of worship; but in
most 4kh£ras the charm or wooden pattens of the founder are also
worshipped. B&olas as a class are believed to be grossly immoral,
and are neld in very low estimation by respectable Hindus.

(11) Darwesh-Faqir, a recent and corrupt Vaishnava sect,

^ . founded in 1850 by Udaya Ch&nd Karmakdr

arw - aqir. 0 f Dacca. They worship Krishna, and dis-
tinguish their creed by the term Brahmadharma. When a novice is
admitted, he receives a kaupin or loin cloth, a khirka or gown reaching
to the ankles, and a ooooanut shell (kishti) in whioh he is to oollect
alms. Like the Aghoris and some of the Biola scots, he is required
to taste various disgusting substances in order to show his superiority
to ordinary prejudices. D arwesh- Faqirs never cut their hair or
shave, and instead of washing with water, smear themselves and
their olothes with mustard oil. Celibacy is professed, but not
practised, and every 6kh£ra or community of ascetics has severed
women attached to it, ostensibly to keep the plaoe in order and cook
the food. Nevertheless they affeot great austerity and pretend to
be the strictest of the Vaishnava sects. Animal life is never taken,
and it is deemed sinful to break off the branohes or even the leaves
of a tree. Before the tombs of the founders, and on receiving a
present, a very elaborate obeisanoe is made by kneeling, touching the
ground with the forehead, and smearing the ohest and faoe with dust

(12) Kartabhaja, an obscure sect believed to have been founded

Kartabha’ early in the eighteenth century by one Aul

i&m ' Chand, who was considered by his followers to
be an inoarnation of Chaitanya. Aul Chand observed no distinction
of caste, and taught the worship of one god and certain moral
preoepts of a negative type. As KartA or spiritual head of the
caste, Aul Chand was suooeeded by Bam Smaran Pal of Ghoshpara
in Nadiy£,,and the offioe is still held by members of the Pal family.
Next in rank to the Kartd are the Mahfoays or Deputies, of whom
one aots as leader to every village oongregration, his duty being to

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VAISHNAVA.

348

TAISYA.

collect the dues for the support of the KartA, and to transmit or
aooount for all amounts so reoeived at stated dates. The religious
oeremonies of the seot are kept secret and performed in private.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of
Vaishnavas in 1872 and 1881 : —

Distkiot.

1871.

1881.

Dnrmicr.

1872.

1881.

Bard wan
Bankura _

Birbhnm

Midnapur .«

HughU _

Howrah

24>ParganAs

Nadiya

Jetsore

Khulna

Hurmhedabad

Dinajpor

jSKby* ...

Bangpur

Bogra

Pabna ...

Darjiling ».

Jalpigort —

Kuch Sehar ...

Dacca ...

Faridpur

Bakarganj

ICnimamimh

Chittagong

87,381

10,260

23,243

96,178

} 20,373

86.563

16,888

13,039

21.404

18,710

14,268

14.641

8,013

8,726

222

1,877

11.888

6,204

6,799

11.991

894

28,662
20,826
21,411
8i,8s8
f 12,107
1 16,284
83,788
21.330
14,881
12,939
26,034
19,340
17,061
26,974
11,111
13,167
667
8,420
1,210
17,239
7,666
6,149
18,028
2,036

Noakhali

Tipperah .

Bill Tracts of Chittagong
Patna

8)\ababad

Motaffarpur

Darbhanga

8ft ran

Champaran ...

Mongnyr

Bhagaurar

Purnian

Maldah

Santkl Parganis

Cuttack

Puri ... ... ...

Balasore

Tributary States

H atari bagh ...

LohardacA ...

Sinabhum .„

Manbhum

Tributary States

2,131

6,847

2,081
1.3116
1,070
} 6,726

3.777

2,666

3,184

18.196

1,809

6,050

6,400

24,330

6,770

18,661

6,410

799

4,469

2,733

12,262

008

2,988

6,164

717

2,767

I, 642
f 4,744
l 1.917

2,320

2.346
2,769
2,763
3,412
9.569

6.346
29.614

7,273

23,067

7,681

441

2,679

2,868

11,948

J. 640

a caste of Eastern Bengal olaiming to be the modern
representatives of the Vaisyas of classical tradition. According to
Dr. Wise, upon whose notes this article is based, they are most numer-
ous in the Bhowal parganA of Dacca, and at Jahingirpur in Maiman-
sinh. They can give no aooount of themselves, nor do they possess
any traditions of their original home. They deny that Ball&l Ben
ruled over or reorganized them, and boast that no honorary titles
inherited from ancestors serving the Muhamadan Government
survive. For these reasons they regard themselves as exceptionally
pipe, having lived uncontaminated amid the changes of the country.
The Yaisyas are generally short and squat, some having fine aquiline
noses and prominent superciliary ridges, while others have broad
cheek-bones, badly formed chins and lower jaws. Their physiog-
nomy suggests cunning combined With intelligence, but many exhibit
the inanimate vacant expression so oommon among Bengali low
oastes. The Vaisyas have relinquished many of the peculiar duties
enjoined by Manu, though still wearing the saored cord, composed
of three strands knotted together, and another disconnected one of
three threads, called Utari The ceremony of tonsure, Chfir& Karan,
is observed before the thirteenth year, not postponed to the twenty-
fourth, and on this occasion the youth is invested with the Brahman-
ioal cord. Yaisyas profess to repeat the whole of the Gdyatri,
but the Brahmans assert that at the present day few know more
than three-fourths of it, and not having full permission to bestow
a blessing on the §fidras, they twist the Paitd round the right thumb,
and holding the right hand on a level with the navel confer the

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TAISYA.

349

VYASOKTA.

usual benediction. Vaf$yas are permitted to read one of the four
Vedas, and that always followed is the Yaiur-veda. Each household
celebrates by itself the S&ligr&m, Chakra, and Vishnu Pfijas,
although Brahmans dispute their right to do so without requiring
the servioes of the guru, or purobit, who are §rotriy& Brahmans* In
creed the caste is a Vaishnava one, yet a few §6kta worshippers are
met with. The Vai§yas formerly committed the sin of marrying in
their own potra, or exogamous group, but of late years, in order to
stay the scandal, new gotras have been formed.

They have no peculiar titles, but Gupta is often adde to their
names, while individuals employed as assistants to merchants fre-
quently assume the surname of Biswas, literally a holder of one-
fourth share. Manu says that the first part of a Vai;ya name
should indicate wealth, the second prosperity; but the Bengali
Valsyas have ceased conforming to this rule, and the names ordinarily
met with are lUm Kamir, Dev NAr&yana, §itala Chandra, or R&m
Got) Ala, to which the surname Valgya is always appended. Baidy&s
ana K&yasths residing within the Ball&li country refuse to touch
food prepared by the Yaigyas, but those living beyond those limits
readily do so.

The Vai?ya is generally a tolerable Bengali soholar, but few learn
English, as it entails expense and delays ia young from starting
in life. In Maimansinh a few enter Government employ, but the
majority are pleaders, mukht&rs, rent collectors and land surveyors.
Formerly the cultivation of the soil was general, but now-a-days
holding a plough is considered dishonourable, while managing a
harrow is admissible. When a Vaigya meets a Brahman he does
not, like other Hindus, make the salutation Pragma, as the Brahman
bestows his benediction without it. Among Valsyas the period of
impurity after a death is fifteen days. All the Hindu festivals are
observed by them, but the favourite one is that in honour of Lakhsmi,
the goddess of wealth.

Vdkat , a variant of Bhakat.

Vasta G&in, a that or section
of Nep&li Brahmans*

V&tsa, see B&tsya.

Ved&nta, he who knows the
Vedas, a tilde of Brahmans*

Vent, a variant of Beni, a
synonym for Baniyd.

Vidy&dhara, a title of Kawd-
lis in Eastern Bengal.

Vishnu, see Bishnu*

Vishnum&si, a section of
Bands in Bengal*

Vishnusw&mi, a sect of Vaish-
navs.

Visw&l, a title of Ch&s&s in
Orissa*

Vumik, a variant for Bhaumik,
a title of Kaibarttas.

Vyfisa, a section of Kaibarttas,
TAmbulis, Subarnabaniks, and
TAntis in Bengal ; of Gaura
Brahmans in Behar.

Vy&sokta, a title of those
IWrhi Brahmans who perform
religious offioes for the Eai-
barttas*

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WADSUESA.

350

WIITIEL

Wadsuesa, a sept of Maghs
in the Hill Traots of Chittagong.

Wahe, a section of the Panch-
j&ti sub-oaste of Khatris in
£engal.

Wdhsali, a tkar or sept of
Khambus in Darjiling.

Waientsa, a sept of Maghs in
the Hill Traots of Chittagong.

Wangdehch&, a that or sept
of Sunuwdrs in Darjiling.

Warggu, a sept of Chakm4s
in the Hill Tracts of Chittagong.

Weh-ba f a rui or sept of
Sherpa Bhotias of Nepal.

Winih, a section of Barhis in
Behar.

Digitized by {jOOQie

YAHIAN.

351

YUBIJMBANG.

Yah ten, a section of Naiy&s.

a small agricultural
caste of Nepal belonging to the
Kiranti group.

Yak-kyukpa, a sept of the
Phigu sub-tribe of Yakhis in
Darjiling.

Yakpangden, the dweller on
the pass, a sept of the Yan-
gorup sub-tribe of Limbus in
Darjiling.

Yakshoma, the guardian of
the fort 9 a sept of tne Ahtharai
sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Yaktachd, a thar or sept of
Sunuwirs in Darjiling.

Yakten, formerly doctors, a
sub-sept of the Thekim sept of
Limbus in Daijiling.

Yaktkumba , a synonym for
limbu.

Yamphu, a sub-tribe of
Yakhds in Darjiling.

Yangdenba, he who paid his
footing, a sept of the Pdnthar
sub-tribe of limbus in Darjiling,
said to be descended from a
Mech, who got admission into the
Limbu tribe by bribing the heads
of the thum-thum.

Ydngdi, a thar or sept of
Mangars in Darjiling.

YAngmi, a thar or sept of
Mangars in Darjiling.

Yangorup, a sub-tribe of Lim-
bus in Daijiling.

Yangsoba or Namlagpa, the
chief of the tribe, a sept of the
P&nthar sub-tribe of Limbus in
Darjiling.

Yeti, a thar or sept of
Sunuwirs in Darjiling.

YijAm, the wanderer or eater,
a sept of the Yangorup sub-tribe
of Limbug in Darjiling.

Yithingu, the huntsman, a
sept of the Yangorup sub-tribe
of Limbus in Darjiling.

Yo-chang, a sub-sept of the
Pon-po sept of Dejong Lhoris or
Bhotias of the south.

Yoksuma, a sept of the Phigu
sub-tribe of Yakh&s in Darjiling.

Yong-tong-ba, a rui or sept of
Dejong Lhoris, the members of
which are the descendants of
emigrants from Bhotan and
Nepal.

Yongyah, a sept of Limbus in
Darjiling.

Yongyahang, the son of a
chief, a sept of the Yangorup
and Charkhola sub-tribes of
Limbus in Darjiling.

Yulsahb, a rui or sept of
Dejong Lhoris, the members of
which are the descendants of
emigrants from Bhotan and
Nepal.

Yul-then-bo, a rui or sept of
the Tongdu sub-tribe of Dejong
Lhoris whose ancestor was
turned out of his fatherland.

YungmA, the idler, a sept of
the Yangorup sub-tribe of lim-
bus in Darjiling.

Yurumbang, they of the
central village, a sept of the
Phedab sub-tribe of limbus in
Darjiling.

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ZAJH5DAB.

862

ZA.TTL

Zaminddr, a fcynonym for
B&bhan.

Zaminddr Brahman, a synonym
for B&bhan.

Zargar, a synonym for Son&r.

Zargar, Zardoti, a maker of
oloth of gold.

Zatti, a title of Kewats and
M alias in Behar.

Digitized by LjOOQLe

ETHNOGRAPHIC GLOSSARY.
VOL. H

Digitized by {jOOQie

Digitized by

APPENDIX I.

Pag*.

List of castes and tribes with their titles, sub-castes, sub-tribes,
sections and septs 1 — 141

APPENDIX II.

Proceedings of Conference on Ethnography of Northern India,

held at Lahore 143 — 44

Suggestions regarding some doubtful points of Ethnographic
nomenclature 144—45

Ethnographic questions —

General series 145 — 48

Special series 148— 73

APPENDIX III.

Mr. Denzil Ibbetson’s Memorandum on ethnological inquiry

in the Panj&b 175— gg

APPENDIX IV.

List of Correspondents selected to take part in the ethnographic

survey of Bengal 189—93

Digitized by LjOOQLe

Digitized by

APPENDIX I.

LIST OF TEIBES AND CASTES WITH THEIR TITLES, SUB-
CASTES AND SUB-TRIBES, SECTIONS AND SEPT8:

<Agar&

Titles Dhdngar, Parja.

Septs.

Baheroar, a jungle fruit.
Mahatoar, a title.
Samduar.

Sonoar, gold.

T uriar.

Sub- tribes.

Pah&ria-Agaria.

Brijia-Agaria.

Assur-Agaria.

Lohar-Agaria.

(Agaito^l, Agancdld.

Sub-castes.

Pachhainya.

Purbiya.

Das4.

Bisa or Birfidari R4j4.

Sections.

t ■ * ^

Airan. Mangal.

B4tsil. Mittal.

Bhaddal. Singhal.

Garg. Tairan.

Gdwdl. TAyal.

Gobhil. Thingal.

Goil. Tingal.

Goin. Tittal.

Kfisil. Tundal.

S^guri, Ugra Kshatri.

Titles:— Kesh, Pai, P4I, Sdmanta, Sy4m.

Sub-castes.

B4gh4.

Bardw4niy4.
Ch4gn4ya or Ch4nga.
J4n4.

K4sipuri4.

S4tsaikiy4.

Suta. -

Sections.

Bharadw4ja.

Gautam.

K4syapa.

S4ndilya.

Not*. — I n order to facilitate reference
gamous groups are printed in red ink.

w mese lists, tne names <

I vuuw

Digitized by ^.oosle

All AT.

JtatftL

Titles Ghibihir, Khaw&s, Sagh6r.

8nb-eastes. Sections.

Gharfc&it or Raut. Larwdr.

Bahiot. Narhan.

Parabw&r.

PataiwAr.

JUttra, Agoria, Lohri.

Titles: — M&jhi, Parj&.

Sept*.

Aind, an eel.

Baroa, a mid oat.
Basricir, bamboo.
Beli&r, bel fruit.
Kachua, a tortoise.
Kaith&war, kaithd or
fruit.

Kerketa, a bird.
Mukru&r, spider.

N4g, a snake.

Rote, frog.

Siar, jackal.

Tirki, a bird.

Topo, a bird.

$$bhan.

Synonyms : — Ajagyak Brdhman, Bhuinhdr y Chaudhviji ,
Br&hman, Mayhayi Brahman , Pachhima Brahman , Z
ddr Brahman.

Bub-tribe*.

Agari&.

Birjici.

Kolh-Asur.

Lohra-Asur.

Pah£ri&-Asur.

Titles : — Ar&pe, Bharsi-Misr, Chaube, Chaudriji,
Dube, Maw&r, Misr, Ojhci, Panchobe,
P&thak, R6i, Singh, Sotri, ThSkur,
Upadhiy&.

Abk&hon.

Aggechal.

Agnidhaut.

Ailw&r.

Ajaiti4.

Ambarlci.

SECTIONS.

(a) Territorial.

Anarai.

Aswarid.

Anwcir.

Atrab.

Araich.

Auigh baid,

Arait.

Badonii.

Arewar.

Badramii.

Amwait.

BagauchiA.

chichinga

Grihasth
r, Zamin-

Dikshit,

P&nde,

Tiw4ri,

Digitized by {jOOQie

BABHAN.

Bagri.

Balaidr.

Bandihd.

Banrid.

Barhambid.

Barhampurid.

Barnait.

Basmait.

Baswait.

Baurihd.

Begampurid.

Belkudr.

Belonchd.

Bemwdr.

Bhadsuhid.

Bhaju Chakwar.
Bhalrait.

Bhatan.

Bhelorid.

Bhomdpoli.

Bhunasware.

Bigahid.

Bijalpurid.

Bilkhari.

Chaksidr.

Chakwdr.

Chandrdwat

Chasiwar.

Chauridr.

Chausd.

Chesid.

Chiksoria.

Chilimdr.

Chiwdr.

Dabhinchhwdr, Da-
bhauchwar.
Dalihare, Dullihard.
Dari hare.

Dhakdit.

Dhanichhwdr.

Dharan.

Dharwdr.

Dhaurdni.

Dighwait.

Dighwe.

Dipdr.

Domkatdr.

Donwdr.

Dudhnait.

concluded.

Dumrdit.

Dundwar.

Gambharid.

Gangtiait.

Garhid.

Gaur.

Ghatait.

Goait.

Hararidi foundling.

Hariambd.

Hartakia.

Hastgame.

Indrawar.

daitharia.

ddji.

uajim.

damraidn.

danwdr.

desiwdr.

dethuliar.

Kadarai.

Kalemnid.

Kanchanbhdr.

Karmud.

Karnautid.

Karndyati.

Kestwdr.

Kataunid.

Kate war.

Katidin.

Kathautid.

Kathwait.

Katthawa.

Kausonjhid.

Kinwdr.

Korache.

Kordnch.

Kulhd.

Kumedwdr.

Kunjalwdr.

Ladild.

Lamgorid.

Larwarid.

Mahbarid.

Mahuari.

Mai rid.
Malikaulid.
Malitwdr.
Manaria.

Manchia.

Mandra.

Mangrauni.

Maniksharid.

Nanjord.

Naradwdr.

Niktawdr.

Nonaitwdr.

Okinwdr.

Onwdr.

Pachbhajud.

Pachgotya.

Panchobe.

Parhape.

Parsaria.

Pilch war.

Piliksawdr.

Pilkhait.

Raini.

Ramayd.

Rampai.

Ransadiyd.

Sahasnanghid.

Sahdaulia.

Sakarwdr.

Sakhwait.

Sakmait.

Salhariyd-

Sandalid.

Sapdohd.

Sarwe.

Saubarnid.

Semraidn.

Sihogid.

Sihorid.

Sihujid.

Siridr.

Sirsait.

Sonbhadrid, living
on the banks of
the Sone.
Sonewdr.

Sorawdr.

Suargane.

Surgrid.

Tetihd.

Tetihia.

Tilachhwar.

Umatwdr.

1 a

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EABHAN.

(b) Functional or Personal.

Bhusbardt, husk-
gatherer.

Chaubhaid, born of
four brothers.

Eksarid, bom of one
brother.

Jalewdr, holder of
fisihng nets.

Koddrid, worker with
the spade.

Panchbhaid, bom of
five brothers.

Agnihotra.

Atharb.

Basisht.

Bharadwdj.

Garg.

Gautam.
Hdrit.
Kdsyapa.
Ka undin.
Kausik.

Pardsar.

Sdbarna.

Sdndil.

Vdtsa.

gdgtli, Bdgtit.

Titles : — Bdgh, Dhdrd, Khdn, Mdnjhi, Masalchi, Mudi, Palan-
khai, Pardmanik, Pherkd, Puild, Rdi, Sdntrd,
Sarddr.

Sub-castes.

1. Bdjdnddrid, found in Jessore.

2. Dandamdnjhi.

3. Dardtid. found in Nuddea.

4. Dulid, a palanquin-bearing sub-oaste.

5. Gulimdnjni.

6. Kasdi kulid, said to live along the banks of the Easdi river in

Manbhum and Midnapur.

7. Kusmetia, Kusmdtid, orKusputra, said to be named after the

kusd grass, and apparently totemistie.

8. Let, found in Murshedabad.

9. Mdchhud, Mechhud, orMecho, a fishing sub-caste.

10. Malta met id, Mdtid, or Mdtidl. fishermen and earth-workers.

11. Nodd, found in the 24-Pargands, said to have come from

Bankura.

12. Tentulid, named after the tamarind tree, and apparently

totemistio.

13. T rayodds, found in the 24-ParganAs, said to have oome from

Bankura.

14. Ujha or Ojha, probably desoended from the priests of the

tribal gods, who would naturally tend to form themselves
into a sub-caste. For a parallel case, see Mallik.

Digitized by LjOOQle

BAGDI.

SECTIONS.

Totemistic—

(i) Eponymous—

Ardi, fish.

Alamy&n.

B4ghrishi, the tiger.
Kachchip, the tortoise.

K&syapa.

Kdsbak, heron.
Pdkbasanta, bird.

(e) Uncertain—

B&gri.

P&trishi, the bean.

D&sya.

Gadibhirat.

Ponkrishi, jangle oook.
S&lrishi or Silmachh, the

K4I.

sdl fish.

R&ncho.

Vaidi/a, Ambastha , Bhisak, Chikitsak.

Sab-castes (Endogamons).

Sections (Exogamous).

Rdrhi.

Banga, Bangaja.

Barendra, Varendra.
Panchakoti.

Eypergamous groups.

Kulin.

Bangsaja.

Maulik.

Family titles (padabis).

D4s

Gupta

Sen

Datta

Deb

Dhar

Kar

| Siddha.
I Sidhya.

Chandra

Kundu

N4g

Nandi

Raja

Rakshit

Soma

>Kashta.

Adya.

Alamalaka.

Angira.

Atreya.

Baisv&nara.

Basi8htha.

B&tsya.

Bharadwdja.

Dhanvantari.

Dhruba.

Gautama.

Ghritakausika.

Hingu.

Kdsyapa.

Kausika.

Krishn&treya.

Madhukuliya.

M&rkandeya.'

Maudgalya.

S4bama.

Saktri.

Salankayana.

S&ndilya.

Vishnu.

Titles or popular designations of Baidyas practising medicine.

Used by themselves. Baidya-nidhi.

Kabi-ballabh.

Kabi-bhushan.

Kabi-indra.

Kabir&j.

Kabiranjan.

Kabi-ratna,

Digitized by t^oosle

BAIDYA.

Bted by outtideri. Atai Baidya, doctor who defrauds the ignorant.
Ch4s& Baidya, plough doctor.

Deh&ti Baidya, village doctor.

Haturi4 Baidya, a doctor who attends market,
or, aooording to Wise, a quack, a meddlesome
fellow.

N&ri-tepd, pulse-feeler.

$atr£gi, Jogi, Oosiin.

Sub-tribes. Septs in Chota Nagpur.

Nil. Achut.

Anaet.

Anchit, tiger.

Barandia.

Bishnu.

Dhobdhar, can’t wash their olothes in
child’s birth ceremonies.

Gobans, cow.

Idri, a jungle fruit.

Kansi, a kind of grass.

Karanjea, an oil-seed.

N6g, cobra.

Ramgharia, a place.

Sonar, cau’t wear gold.

Tura.

|)4Ut f Bdoti, Chundri, Clumyd, Barnak-Tdmuli.

Titles : — Bhuiyd, R4i, Sen.

Sab-castes. Sections.

1. B&iti of Dacca and Central Bengal. Aliman.

2. Magi of Faridpur. B&ghrishi.

Kasyapa.

Tilalochan.

§XXh.i, Barhai.

Titles: — Manjhan, Maraiya, Mistri, R4i, S&tun, Th4kur.

Sub-castes.

Sections.

1. Kanaujii \ (Work only in

2. Kokas ) wood.)

3. Maghay4. (W ork in wood

and iron.)

(«) Territorial —
Bachberiit.
Balbher4it.
Binsdih.

Digitized by {jOOQie

BABHI.

Sub-castes. Sections.

(e) Territorial — oonoluded.
Barhioth.

Barn&it.

Balhdtt.

Bhardii.

Charwa.
Chaudhrdna.
Dasdonth.

Dobhdit.

Gritdri.

Hdthidn.

Kdpri.

Khardit.

Lakwdr.

Mukund.

Parus.

Pipridti.

Sikalgar.

Winih.

(b) Eponymous —

Biskarma.

Sdndilya.

Kdsyapa.

Hypergamous divisions of the Maghayd sub-caste.

Thdkur.

Rdi.

Kuar.

4. Lohar. (Found in BMgal-
pur. Work odIj
in iron.)

6. Kamdr-Kalld.

6. Mathurid.

IN BENGAL.

§ixm, Barai, Baraji , Bdrajibi, Latd-laidya.

Titles: — Ain, Ash, Bawdl, Bhadra, Bhaumik, Bhawal,
Biswds, Chdnd, Chaudhri, Ddm, D&s, Deo, Datta,
Dhar, Guha, Hdlddr, Hor, Kar, Khdn, Khor,
Kuhdu, Ldhd, Majumddr, Mallik, Mandal, Mantrini,
Mdnnd, Marik, Mitra, Ndha, Ndg, Nandan, Nandi,
Pdl, Rakhit, Rudra, Sarkdr, Sen.

Sub-caite*.

1. Rdrhi.

2. Barendra.

3. Ndthdn.

4. Kotd.

Sections.

Aliman. Kanwamaharsi.

Batsya. Kdsyapa.

Bharadwdj. Madhukuliya.

Chandramaharsi. Sdndilya.
Gautama. Vishnumaharsi.

Jaimini. Vydsa.

Digitized by ^.oosle

BA BA I.

Sub-caste*.

1. Maghaya.

2. Jaiswdr.

3. Chaurasid.

4. Semerya.

5. Sokhwd.

IN BEHAB.

$arai, Slisiri.

Title Rdut.

Sections.

Kdsyapa.

Ndg.

JBauvi, Burn.

Titles Digha, Mandal, Manjhi, Maulavi, Pardmanik.

Sub-castes.

1. Dhulid or Dhulo.

2. Jhatid or Jhetid.

3. Kdthurid.

4. Mallabhumld.

5. Malud or Mdlud.

6. Mola.

7. Panchakotl.

8. Pdturia.

9. Sikharid or Gobarid.

Sections.

Aliman.

Kdsvapa.

Madhukulya.

Mdjhi.

Betid, Bejei.

Title : — Mahto.

8ub-tribes. Septs.

Nil. Bar, the banyan tree.

Biha or Binjhd, a fish.

Chidra or Cherrd, squirrel.
Dhechua, a black bird.

Dian, a kind of fish.

Kachua or Kachchh, tortoise.
Khopchd, an owl.

Mahanadi, name of a river.
Mahua, bassia latifolia.
Mahukal, a bird with long tail.
Maina, a bird.

Ndg, a cobra.

Parewd, a pigeon.

Pechft, an owl.

Suid, a bird.

Sulankhi, a bird.

Sundi, mahua flower.

Titipi, a night bird.

T uru, a bird.

Digitized by ^.oosle

BELDAB.

$eltar.

Titles Gadahya, Mar&r, R&ut.

Sab-castes. Section.

Bhojpurte. Kasyapa.

Chauh&n.

Kathautte or Kath&w&.

^haitilin, Ndpit, Hqydm.
Titles : — B&rik, Kshuri.

Sub-caste*. Section.

Bangui i.

Dakhini.

Desi.

Kharii.

Khurdd.

Gola.

Hatu&.

$har.

Title : — R£n&.

Sub-castes. Sections.

(a) Totemutic —

1- Bang&ll. Bansrishi, bamboo.

2. MaghayS. Bel, 6*/ fruit.

Kachhap, tortoise.
Mayur, peacock.

(4) Eponymous —

Agni.

Brahmarlshl.

Rishi.

Digitized by t^oosle

§m.

Titles : — Bhdrata, Dasaundhi, Kabiji, Rai.

BHAT.

Snb-castea.

Sections.

Baram-Bh&t.

R«ij-Bh&t.

T urk-Bhcit (Mahomedan).

Anal.

Antahrii.

Balbandhia.

Bharadwija.

Gaighatia.

Kailia.

K&syapa.

Kunwar.

Lakhsarii.

Loh&rkoriy4.

Mahrajia.

Menwar.

Sahar.

S&ndilya.

Sanhakia.

Sindhwatid.

Suarait.

Atseld, Barak, Bhatara, Chaurdsi, Chfingele, Dasaundhi, Gnjriwila,
Jangira, Kailid, Mah&pdtra, Nagauri, Sikatpdrea, are mentioned by Sir Henry
Elliot aa subdivisions of Bhdts, bat it ia not stated whether these names
denote snb-castes, sections, or merely titles.

ghuhmtiUi, Bhusundar , Siddhi-putra, Hdri.

Snb>oastes. Sections.

1. Bara-bh&giyd. Parisara.

2. Mitra Seni Behar&. Aliman.

3. Chhota-bh&giy&.

4. Amar&badi A Found in Noakhali,

6. S^r&lid and apparently

6. H4ti& peculiar to that

7. Bhulu& ; district.

Digitized by LjOOQLe

BHUIYA.

$hutB$ r Bhuinyd, Bhuiydn, Bhuinkdr, Bhumiyd , Mmahar, Ndil;
Kkanddyat, Khanddyat-Pdik, Qhatwdl , O/iatwdr, Tikdyat, Bajwdr,
Rai-Bhuiya, Ber-Bhuiyd, Sarddr , Pitran.

Titles:— Bhogta, Chhariddr, Kopdt, Mahton, Mdnjhi, Ndik,
Rii Singh, Thdkur, Tikdyat.

Sub-tribes. •

Septs.

In Lohardagd —

Bichwdr.

Deswdli.

Dundwdr.

dunwdr.

Khandait.

Maghaiyd.

Mahtwdr.

Marherid.

Rajwdr.

Rikhidsan.

Tirwdr.

In Ktonjhar —

Mdl or Desh-Bhuiyd.
Dandsena.

Khatti.

Rdjkuli.

In Manbhum —

Dhord.

Kdtrds.

Musahar.

In Hataribagh —

Ghdtwdr.

Tikdyat.

Asura.

Bagdli.

Baliar.

Bartini.

Banka.

Bankiar.

Banui.

Champiar.

Chirra or Rikhiasan, squirrel.

Golari.

dagdft.

dagorari.

Kach, tortoise.

Kaliar.

Kandni.

Kanrui.

Kenduari.

Keruri.

Kihar.

Kussum, a tree.

Kutar.

Lota.

Ndg.

Naragi.

Narari.

Noah.

Pachoar.

Pansi.

Rdi.

Ranangi.

Sani.

Satadi.

Sinhi.

Digitized by LjOOQle

BHUMIJ.

$humij.

Titles:— Mdnki, 1 Matkum, 4 Mura, 9 Sard&r. 4

Sab- tribes.

Desi.

Tamdrict, Murd, or Mdnki-Mura. 9
Sikhariyd or Meno.'

P&tkumid 7
Shelo, iron-smelters.

Bar&bhumici, zamindar Bhumij. 8

Septs.

Badd4 Kurkutifi, a kind of
worm.

Bdrdfi.

Bhuiyd, fish.

Chandil.

Gulgu, fish.

H&nsd&, wild goose.
Hemrong, betel palm.

J&ru, a bird.

KAsyab, tortoise.

Long, mushroom.

Ndg, snake.

Ob&rs&ri, a bird.

Pild.

Sfigmfi.

S&lrishi, sa/fish.

S&ndilya, a bird.

Siold.

Tesfi, bird.

T umirung, pumpkin.

Tuti, a sort of vegetable.

1 This title is common among the Mnndas.

* Applied to the Bhumij of Dhalbhum.

* Mura is the common form of Manda in Manbhnm.

* Possibly borrowed from the ghatvali system, the leading executive unit
of which is the ta.rd.ir or head of the subordinate ghatwalt (tabidart) of a
village.

* The two latter appellations clearly suggest Munda descent.

* This group is supposed to come from Manbhnm.

’ The PatkumiA ana Tam&rii sub-tribes occasionally intermarry.

* Probably descended from members of the Barabhum zamindari family.

Titles : — Chaudhri, Mahto, Mukhifi, Riut.

Sub- castes.

Sections.

KharicLt

Awadhiyd

Lodhiyci

Gondh

In Behar.

(a) Territorial —

Jarhuciit.

Jhaudit.

Odanifi.

JutautBind \

Nun Bind [ In Eastern Bengal, (£) Eponymous —
Bin j K&syapa.

Digitized by ^.oosle

BINJHIA.

Birjii, Brijid, Binjhw&r.

Titles :—Bardik, Dandld, Gaunjhu, Kirji, Mdnjhi, Mird&hd,

N&ik, Ndth,

Sub-tribes.

Pahir i ya-B i njhi &.

Pand-Binjhi&.

Agaria-BinjhiS.

Parja, Pradhfin.

Septs.

Bair, zizyphus jtyttba.

Bansetti, don’t touch bamboo at
a wedding.

Bhair.

Cheruka, fish.

Chidra, squirrel.

Chingri, a river-fish.

Chorka, a pond-fish.

Chutia, rat.

Dddul, bull-frog.

Garai, a river-fish.

Huni) paddy-bird.

Kachua, tortoise.

K&si, a kind of grass ( saccharum
tpontaneum).

Kuns, grass.

Mangar, crocodile.

Murgi, hen.

N&g, serpent.

Pusway, a river-fish.

Sinduria, use sindur, a red paint,
at marriage.

T elha, use oil at marriage.
Tengra, a river-fish.

Thekra, a river-fish.

girhor.

Title Birhor.

Sub-tribes. Septs.

Mi. Hemrom, a kind of fish.

Jagsaria.

Liluai.

Mahli.

Ndg, cobra.

Nagpuria.

Singpuria.

Siruar.

Digitized by LjOOQle

BBXHMAN.

$tfthtn&tt, Biman , Bipra, Dteija, T/iikur, Barmi, Deva-8armd,
Bhudeva, Bhutur, Agraja, Mahirajji, Bibaji, Qotiinji.

Main divitiont. Territorial divitiont.

Pancha Gauriya— S4raswat, K4nyakubja, Gaura, Utkal,
Maithil.

Pancha Dr4vira—Kam4ti, Tailangi or Andhra, Gujr&ti
or Gurjjara, Driviri, Mah4r4shtriya.

Miscellaneous — Nepal i , Vy4sokta, S4kadwtpi, Kraunch-
dwipi (inoludins' Jausi, dotkhi or
dyotshi, D4kanti4, Bhadari4 or Bhareri,
dadw4, Saguni4, 3anicher4), M4gadha,
Bandijan or Suta, Atharva, M5thur,
Mah4 Br4hman otherwise called Mah4-
p4tra or Kant4ha, Lakhaurla, Belonti4,
Kathak, KalAwat, Tikaur, Sakuntal4,
Saw4l4khi, Kashmiri, K4mrupi.

Tirtha Purohits, Debal or Pand4 Gay4w4l, Pray4g-
wal, Gang&putra, Dh4min, eto.

34raswat.

Sab-castes.

In the Panjdb.

Four local divisions, ^
divided into nigh,
middle, and low 2 n( j
endogamous groups. ”

3rd „
4th „

Sections.

(•High ... 50 The gotrat are
| Low ... 172 common to all

-High ... 12 Br4hmans.

' Low ... 23

'High ... 9

Low ... 48

High ... 11

. Middle... 20

( Low ... 124

Total ... 469

In Behar they have the following titles, which are endogam-
ous*— Misra, Sukul, Dube or Dobe, Tiw4ri, P4thak, P4nde,
Up4dhy4ya, Chaube or Chobe, B4japeyi, Pandit.

K4nya Kubja, Kanauji4.

Titles (in Behar) Misr or Misra, Sukul, Tiw4ri, Dube or Dobe,
P4thak, P4nre, Up4dhy4ya, Chaube or Chobe, Dichhit or
Dikshit, Lakhnau or B4japeyi, Sarwariy4 or Saryup4ri.

Digitized by {jOOQie

BRAHMAN.

Titles (m Bengal) : — Bhatt5ch5rji, Ghatak, Chakrabartti, Bandya,
Cnatta, Mukhati, RAi, Munshi,Chaudhri, Sark&r, Majumd6r,
H&ld&r, Bidydratna, Bidydbdgis, Smritiratna.

• Sab-cutes. Sections or gotra* common to all Br&hmaas.

In Bengal.

R&rhi. Abya.

Pirili. Agastya.

Barendra. Alamy&n.

Uttar Barendra. An&brik&kaha.
Pdnchurid. Angirasa.

Madhyasreni or Atreya.

Madyadoshi. Atri.

Barna or Patita Baijihmapadya.

Brihman. Baivdghrapadya.

Agrad&ni. Basishtha.

Achirji, Daibajna, Bisuki.

Ganaka. Bitsya.

Bhat or Bhatta. Bharadw&ja.

Maruipori. Bhirgava.

Saptasati or Sitsati. Bishnu.

Vaidik. Biswimitra.

Paschitya. Briddha.

Dikshinitya. Brihaspati.

Garga.

Gautama.

Ghritakausika.

Kanwa or Kinna.

Kisyapa.

Kityiyan.

Kaundilya.

Kausika.

Kaustav.

Krishn&treya.

Kusal.

Maudgalya.

Maunas.

Parisara.

Paulastya.

Rikhab.

Rohita.

Sibama.

Saktri.

Sindilya.

Sinkriti.

Saukdlin.

Saup&yan.

Sunaka.

Gotama. Upamanya.

Jibili. JjA'Si ''Swarna-Kausik.

Kinchan. fSaunaka.

e| 3 , Kinwiyan.

‘ Rathitara.

3° (.Agnibesma.

1. The B4rhi and B4rendra sub-castes have the following five gotrat •
K4syapa, Sandilya, S4barna, B4tsya, and Bharadw4ja.

2. The S4tsatis have some of the gotrat or exogamona sectiQDs in use
among Baidik Brahmans.

3. There can be no intermarriage amongst persons of the following five
gotrat J4madagnya, B4tsya, S4barna, Maudgalya, Saup4yana, which are
supposed to be of common ancestry and are therefore reckoned as one
exogamous section.

4. The Madhyasreni or Madyadoshi Br4hmans of Western Bengal
have the following gotrat 84ndily a, B4tsyaba, K4syapa, Bharadw4ja,
S4barnya, Par4sara, Gautma, Ghrita-Kausika.

6. The Bh4ts or Bhattas have the following gotrat Kisyapa, Bh&rad-
w4ja, S4ndilya, Ghrita-Kausika, Aurbba Bishi, B4tsya, Alimy4n.

6. Each gotra has its pravarat, ».e., a group of from three to five Bishis
belonging to the same gotra. Intermarriage between persons having the same
pravarat is in theory prohibited, but this rule is not now strictly observed.

Digitized by LjOOQLe

BRAHMAN.

Giin or Gr&min (56 or 59) of the RArhi eub-oaste under
the five gotrat

Bandja.

Gargari.

Keearkuni.

Kuaumkali.

PArihAl.

Kulabhi.

S&ndilya Ootra (16).

Ghoehli.

SejagA.

Masohatak.

BarAl.

BasuAri.

KadAl.

KusAri

KulifiA or Kulkuli.
AkAs.

DirghAti.

Kityapa Gotra (16).

Gur.

PalaAi.

Ambuli.

Har.

Bhuri.

PorAri.

TalabAti.

PAladhi

Pitamundi.

EoAri.

Ghatta.

PAkrAsi.

SimlAL

Pushali, PushilAl.
Bhatta.

Mid.

Bharadwdja Gotra (4).

Mukhaiti.

DiogsAin.

SAharik.

BAyi.

GAnguli.

KundalAl.

Siddha).

DAyi

Bahama Gotra (12).

Nandi

BAli.

SiArik.

Pungsika.

SAteswari.

PAriAl.

Ghantesvari.

NAyAri.

MahintA.

GhoshAi

Simlai.

BApuli.

Batty a Gotra (8 or 11).

PippalAi KAnjiAri.

Putitunda. Chautkhandi.

Purbba. DighAl..

KAujilAl.

Digitized by

Google

BJUHMAN.

The Gdins whom Rdjd Balldl Sen made — Kulin , Qauna Kulin ,
and Srotriya : —

Bandya.

Chatta.

Mukhaiti.

iTw/tn (8).

GhoshdL Kdnjildl.

P n titunda. Kundaldl.

Ginguli.

Rdyi.

Gur.

Mahintd.

Kulabhi.

Chautkhandi.

Qauna Kulin (14).

Pippaldi.

Gargari.

Ghauteswari.

Kesarkuni.

Dingsdi.

Pdrihdl.

Har.

Pitamundi.

Dirghdti.

The remaining 34 or 37 are Srotriyas.

Those Ghataks who reckon 56 Gains, include Pordri among
Gauna Kulins and exclude Dighal, Chautkhandi, and Purbba. Those
who reckon 59, exclude Pordri, Dighal, and Purbba from Gauna
Kulin, and show 34 Srotriyas.

Hypergamous groups bhdha and sub-groups mel of Rdrbis
formed by the famous social reformer Devibar Ghatak : —

Groups. Mels or sub-groups, mostly endogamous.

Kulin.

Bhanga Kulin.

i Suddha.
Srotriya J Sadhya.

( Kashta.

Bansaja.

Phulid.

Khardaha.

Ballabhi.

Sarbbdnandi.

Panditratni.

Bdngdl.

Surdi.

Achdrjya Sekhari.

Gopdlghataki.

Chatta Raghabi.

Bijayapanditi.

Madhdi.

Bidyadhari.

Pdrihdl.

Sriangabhatti.

Pramodni.

Bdli.

Chandrapati.

Sribarddhani.

Satdnandkhdni.

Chhayi.

Aohambitd.
Dasarath Ghataki.
Subha rdjkhdni.
Mdlddharkhdni.
Rdghab Ghoshdli.
Dehdti.

Nariyd.

Kdkusthi.

Dharadbari.

Rdyi.

Bhairab Ghataki.
Parmananda Misra.
Sunga Sarbbdnandi.
Hari Majumdari.
ChdnddL

Digitized by ^.oosle

BRAHMAN.

Gain or Gramin
five gotra * : —

Maitra.

Bhdduri.

Karan j a.

Bdlayashthi.

Modhdgrdmi.

Balihdri.

Budrabdgchhi.

Ldheri.

Sddhubdg<ihbi.

Champati.

Nandandb&si.

Sdnnydl.

Bhimkdli.

Bhattaedli.

Kdmkdli.

Kurmuri.

Bhdridl.

Laksha.

Jdmrukhi.

Bhddar.

Ldruli.

Jhdmdl, Jhampati.
Aturthi.

Rdi.

Ratndbali.

TJchohharakhi.

Gochchhdsi.

Singdiar.

Pdkari.

Dadhi.

Sringi.

Medari.

TJndhnri.

Dhundhuri.

(100) of the Bdrendra sub-easte under the

Katyapa gotra (18).

Modli.

Kiral. ^

Bijkunja.

Sargrdmi.

Sahagrdmi.

Katigrdmi.

Madhyagrdmi.

Mathgr&mi.

GangagrdmL

Belgrdmi.

Chamagrdmi.

Asrukoti.

Sandilya gotra (14).

Kdmendra.

Subarna.

Sihari.

Totaka.

Tdrodld Bisi.

Pushdna.

Matasydsi.

Champa.

Beluri.

Batsya gotra (24).

Simli.

Srutabati.

Dhosdli.

Akshagrdmi.

Tdnuri.

Sihari.

Batsagrdmi.

Kdligrdmi.

Deuli.

Kdlihdi.

Nidrdli.

Paundrakdli.

Kukkuti.

Kdlindi.

Borhgrdmi.

Chaturdbandi.

Bharadtoaja gotra (24).

BAla.

Kdohhati.

SAkati.

Nandigrdmi.

Simbi.

Gogrdmi.

BaMl.

Nikhati.

Sariy61.

Pippali.

Kehetragidmi.

Sringa.

Dadhiy&l.

Khorjdr.

Puti.

Goswdlambi.

Sabarna gotra (20).

Tdtodr.

Setu.

Naigrdmi.

Nedhuri.

Kap&li.

Tuttari.

Panchabati.

Khandabati.

Nikari.

Samudra.

Ketugrdmi.

Jasogrdmi.

Sitali.

Digitized by

Google

BRAHMAN.

Gttin of Uttar-Barendras according to

41 Gaure Brahman

S&ndilya.

ChampatL

BAgchhi.

LA bar.

NaodanAbAsi,

Sihari.

KAsyapa.

BhAduri.

XaranjA.

Simbi.

B4tsya.

K61Ayi.

Grihasodhani.

Madhugr&mi.

BharadwAja.

RAi.

Gopurbba.

Sirasinthi.

JhAmAL

Sabama.

AnnAsani.

Sulim made by BallAl Sen

LAheri. Maitra.

BAgohbi. SannyAl.

BhAduri. Misra.

Kdlihii.

Bh£dar.

Srotriya* divided by RAjA Sanaa NArAyan :

Karan j a.

Nandan4b£si.

Bhattas&li.

(a) Siddha Srotriya .
Laruli.
Champati.
Jhampati.

Aturthi.

SAlihAi.

Uchchharakhi.

Jimrukhi.

RatnAbali.

(b) Sadhya Srotriya.
Sihari.

Eii.

Gosw&lambi.

Bisi.

Kaig’juri.

(r) The rest are Kashta Srotriyas.

fnrm2 7 Kw^ an i OU8 8 J° Up ? \ hdb ? and ^-groups pathi of BArendras
fonned by the learned social reformer UdayanAohAiya BhAduri.--

Kulfn.

Groups.

/ Siddha.
Srotriya j S4dhya.

( Kashta.
KSpa, Chhaghari&.

Sub-groups.

Jon£li.

Mirdbil.

Bhushn£.

Rohild.

K utabkhAni.
Ali&kh&ni.
Bhab&nipuri.
Beni.

P£nj&, heap of bricks.

P&th&, goat.

Prachanda 9 furious.
Talapatra, bottom of a pot.
Taulo, earthen pot.

Digitized by LjOOQLe

BRAHMAN.

Gdin of Saptasatis : — A rath, Bdguri, Bdlthubi, Bhdgdi, Dhdin,
Dhardhar, Hdlui, Hdturi, Jabagrdmi, Jag&i, Kdlui, Kdndare,
Kdntbard, Kanyd, Kdtddi, Kdtani, E&tnri, Kusald, Mulukjuri,
Ndlsi, N&naksdi, Pdtdri, Pbarphar, Pithdri, Sdgdin, Sdin, Sugdin,
TTjald, Ulluk, etc.

Sub-castes.

Pdschdtya fdondri.
VaidiK. IKondri.

Vaidik.

Sections
( gotras ).

Sdndilya

Basishtha

Sdbarna

Groups, tamdj.

C Akhard.

4 Madhyabhdg.
(.Pdnkunda.

Jodri.

Gaurdli.

Alddhi.

Dadhichi.

Sdntaru.
Brahmapur.
Marichi Grdm.

fChandradwip.
Bharadwdja ...•< Navadwip.

LKotdlipdrd.
Saunaka ... Sdmantasdr.

Local groups — Purbbasthdli.

Bishnupur.
Bhdtpdrd.
Purbba Banga.

Brihmans of tbe following gotras came later on (1102 Sak or
1180 A.D.) and mixed up with the Pdschdtya Yaidiks : — Krishnd-
treya, Gautama, Bathitara, Kdsyapa, Bdtsya, Sunak ; and still later
on (1403 Sak or 1481 A.D.) came Brdhmans of tbe Ghrita- K ausika,
Kausika, A trey a, Sankarshan, Pardsara, Agnibesma, Maudgalya,
Hdrita, and Upamanyu gotras.

Hypergamous

groups.

Ddkshindtya Vaidik.

Kdsyapa.

Gautama.

Batsya.

Kdnwdyan.

Kausika.

Kulin.

Bansaja.

Maulik.

Local groups or

Ghrita-Kausika. iamd J-
uatukarna. Majilpur.

Sabarna. Rdjpur.

Tbe Ddkshindtya Vaidiks have the following titles
Tripdthi, Misra, Pdthak, Chakrabartti.

Digitized by LjOOQle

BRAHMAN.

Gaura.

Sub-caste*.

Title*.

Kevala Gaura.

Sukul.

Adi Gaura

rSukalv&la.
J Joshi.
|Ojh^.

Pdnde.

Misra.

doshi.

8anddhya

t Ch ingala.

]D6ymia.

(Khandelv&la.

Dube.
Tiwdrl.
Chau be.

Hariy&na.

Vyasa.

Sri-Gaura

rT&mboli.

(.Adi Sri-Gaura.

Gurjar Gaura.
Tek Barct.
Chamdr Gaura.
Kritanay.

Maithil orTirhutia.

Titles Majhrote, Misir or Misra including Chaudharl,
R4ya, Parihasta, Khdna and Kumara, Ojhd, Ujha
or dhd, P&thu, Pura including Bakriy&r an d
Charviydr, Th&kur, P£dri.

Sections.

Hypergamous groups.

(

Qotra.

Dih or Mul.

Srotriya or Srotri.
dog.

Panjibaddh.

N&gar.

daiw4r.

Bdtsa

i' 1. Karmahe-Majhaura.

2. Karmahe-Tarauni.

3. Karmahe-Naruii.
j 4. Karma he-Beh at.

I S. Karmahe-Majhidm.

6. Karmahe-Alanpur.

| 7. Karmahe-Sagh &t.

L 8. Karmahe-Urard.

Sandil ... 9. Karmahe-Ahpur.

rlO. Belaunche-Kdko.
11. Belaunche-Ojnaul.

Riaradu/AiaJ 12 - Belaunche-Sudai.
B.iaradwaja<j 13 B elaunche-Ratp4r.

| 14. Belaunche-Garh.
Llo. Belaunche-Dih.

Digitized by {jOOQie

BRAHMAN.

Oolra.

Dih or Mul.

BAtsa

r 16. HariAme-RakhwAri.

| 17. HariAme-SibA.

( 18. HariAme-Bal irAjpur.
I 19. HariAme-KatmA.

L 20. HariAme-Ahil.

r 21. PaliwAr-Mangrauni.

22. PaliwAr-Mahesi.

23. PaliwAr-Dibra.

24. PaliwAr-Sakuri.

25. PaliwAr-Haripur.

26. PaliwAr-Samaul.

27. PaliwAr-Kachhra.

28. PaliwAr-PhuldAha.

29. PaliwAr-Mahendra.
L 30. PaliwAr-darhatyA.

i 31. BudhwAre-Mahesi.
32. BudhwAre-Sakuri.
33. BudhwAre-DumrA.
34. BudhwAre-Balha.

SAndil

' 35. SaudarpurAi-MahiA.

36. SaudarpurAi-Katka.

37. SaudarpurAi-dagaur.

38. SaudarpurAi-Sarso.

39. Saudarpurai-Suket.

40. SaudarpurAi-Hansauli.

41. SaudarpurAi-Khoir.
...•^ 42. SaudarpurAi-Digaun.

43. SaudarpurAi-Kanhauli.

44. SaudarpurAi-MAnik.

45. SaudarpurAi-RohAr.

46. SaudarpurAi -Sundar.

47. SaudarpurAi-Dhaul.

48. SaudarpurAi-BaghAt.
w 49. SaudarpurAi-Gaul.

KAsyap

r 50. Darihare-Dih.

| 51. Darihare-RAjanpurA.
^ 52. Darihare-BargamiA.

| 53. Darihare-Ratauli.

54. Dar i hare-SahasrAm.

BAtsa

55. AnraiwAr-Anrai.

56. AnraiwAr-Usrauli.

57. AnraiwAr-JauA.

58. AnraiwAr-Baingni.

Digitized by LjOOQle

BRAHMAN.

Ootra.

Kdsyap

Bdtsa

Kdsyap ..
Kdsyap
Kdtydyan ..

Sand i I

Kdsyap ..
Sdndil

Kdsyap ...
Sdndil

Dih or Mul.

' 59. Balidse-Narsam.

60. Balidse-Balha.

61. Balidse-Asi.

,. \ 62. Balidse-Sakuri.

63. Balidse-Dharaurd.

64. Balidse-Suket.

. 65. Balidse-Baghdnt.

66. Tannahpurdi-Solhni.
| 67. T akwdre-Ankusi.

| 68. Takwdre-Nima.

f 69. Khowdre-Nahds.

I 70. Khowdre-Mahud.

J 71. Khowdre-Mahnaurd.
' | 72. Kh owdre-Kokrah i .
73. Khowdre-Khari.

_ 74. Kh owdre-IWurdjpur.

I 75. Satlakhe-Sataur.

" j 76. Satlakhe-Satlakha.

r 77. Kunjilwdr-Malangid.

78. Kunjilwdr-Sater.

J 79. Kunjilwdr-Ullu.

' | 80. Kunjilwdr-Bhakhren.
81. Kunjilwdr-Digaun.
w 82. Kunj i I wdr-Bhakhrauli.

! 83. Khanraure-Bhaur.

84. Khanraure-Khutti.

85. Khanraure-Gurdi.

86. Khanraure-Ekmd.

( 87. Sakar i wdr-Harar i .

. ■< 88. Sakariwdr-Tatail.

(. 89. Sakariwdr-Chhdmu.
t 90. Pagulwdr-Barhidm.

. { 91. Pagulwar-Tardlohi.
v 92. Pagulwdr-Dhen.

(" 93. Mardre-Sihol.

94. Marare-Jagaul.

| 95. Marare-Ukki.

J 96. Marare-Barhampur.

’ I 97. Marare-Adauri.

I 98. Marare-Misrauli.

99. Marare-Rajaurd.

1.100. Marare- J agatpur.
flOl. Dighwe-Tipri.
j 102. Dighwe-Nagar.

• 103. Dighwe-Kankaurd.

| 104. Dighwe-Sannahpur.
U05. Dighwe-Sakarpurd.

Digitized by

Google

BRAHMAN.

Gotta.

Batsa

K5syap

Bharadwdj

SAndil

Kasyap ...

S&ndil

Batsa

K&syap

Kasyap
Gautama ...

KSsyap

S&ndil

S&barna . .

Batsa

S&ndil

Dih or Mul.

(106. Bahirarw6r-Parhat.

) 107. Bahirarw5r-Pun&ch.

) 108. Bahirarw&r-P&rkhand.
(.109. Bahirarw£r-Kasi5m.

( 110. Bisaiw5r-Nanhpur.

) 111. Bisaiw&r-Bisphi.
f 112. Ekahre-Or5.
j 113. Ekahre-Ruchaul.

114. Ekahre-Kanhauli.
j 115. Ekahre-Sagr&m.

1.116. Ekahre-Torne.
f 117. Gangulw&r-Sakuri.
1118. Gangulw£r-Dumr4.
fll9. Kataiw5r-Andhr&,

| 120. Kataiw5r-Phet.

^ 121. Kataiwar-Malangia.

\ 122. Kataiw&r-Lo5m.

(_123. Kataiweir-Marachi.

/ 124. Sariswe-Khangor.

(.125. Sariswe-Sakuri.

126. Ghusaute-NagwAr.
f 127. Babhanyime-Katma.

\ 128. Babhany£me-Karrain.

( 129. Kusm£re-SabSs.

| 130. Kusmare-Dhanauli.

131. Narw5re-R£mpur.

132. Barhampur&i-Barham-

pur.

133. Purue-Mahendra.

1 134. Andarai-Nehra.

135. Andar5i-I_aguni5-
136. Andar&i-Pirapur.

'137. Panchaubhe-Khajuli.
138. Panchaubhe-iJhau5.

139. Panchaubhe-Birpur.

. ^ 140. Panchaubhe-Barhmaul.
141. Panchaubhe-Bhithi.
142. Panchaubhe-Dadri.
^143. Panchaubhe-Kariaun.

S 144. Jalaiwir-Jale.

145. daiaiw^r-Maranchi.
146. ualaiwar-Ganraul.

147. dalaiw&r-M&li.

! 1 48. dajwSre-Bharcirn.

149. Jajw&re-Udanpur.

150. dajw&re-uamuni.

151. Jajw5re-Pachahi.

Digitized by

Google

BRAHMAN.

Gotra.

Dih or Mul.

Kisyap ...

K&syap

Kdsyap

S&ndil

Sandil

Sindil

Par5sar ...

Par^sar . . .

Kausika ...

Sindil

Sandil

Sindil

B&tsa

Kasyap ...
Bharadw&j
Bharadw&j
Kasyap ...
Kasyap ...
Garg

Par&sar ...

Sdndil
S&ndil
Krishn&n ...

152. Pakar5e-Mahesi.

153. Budhaure.

154. Bharhe.

155. G5ngaure.

156. Bhatore.

157. Sakarghore.

158. Surganai.

159. Sugarganai-Lo5m.

160. Nekutw&r-Barahi.

161. Nonaitw&r.

162. Talaiw&r.

163. Sihisme-Khor.

164. Sihasme-Sih5sam.

165. Kai&re.

166. Ainw£r.

167. Domtakar&i.

168. KanigSme Kanig&m.

169. Bhandw5l.

170. Thari&me-Thariam.

171 Basahe.

172. Sunriw&r-Solhni.

173. Naraune Teghr£.

174. Naraune Sakt4r£pur.

175. Chhatimane-Chhatman.

176. Kodarie.

177. Bhusware.

(Jtkal.

Titles: — Nanda, Pate, Kara, Achdrya, Satpathi, Bedi, Sen&pati,
Panigrahi, Nisank, Bainipati, PandS, Padahiri, Murhi&
or Sebaka, Qh£tiy&, Daja, Paya, Baghi, Muosi, Devata,
Dandapat, Mahanti, Dharsarmakar, TripSti, Mahip&tra,
Misra, Rath, D4s, Sarangi, S&m&grahi, Hot&, N5th,
Cheni, P&tra, Ldik, Bahali, Pati, Padhi Salu, P&thak,
P&ni, Fakir, Feringi, Lau, Malo, Gh&si, Ladu, Basu,
Pakharpaila, Kantaru, Gorea, Tarat, Jayi, Karpur,
Kandarpa, Parhatii, Phunknali.

Sub-castes.

Srotriya or Sisani —
Sdmanta.

Bhatta Misra.

Gotra or sections.

Batsas.

Kausika.

Atreya.

Kasyapa.

Kautsasa.

Bharadwaja.

Atreya.

Dattatreya.

Krishn&treya.

Digitized by LjOOQle

BRAHMAN.

Sab-castes.

Vaidika.

Up&dhydya.

Ootra or sections.

Atreya.

Kautsasa.

H&rita.

Kausika.

Katy&yana.

Maudgal.

S&ndil.

Kaundinya.

Gautam.

K&syapa.

Bliaradwija.

Kapinja'a.

S&barnika.

J&tukarna.

Parctsara.

Ou/ras are all tlie same as in
S6sani, except Batsas and
Kausika.

Asrotriya —

Sarua Pandd =Bardhusika or
Paniar.

Murhii Panda or Debalaka.
Gr&m Jachaka.

Mahasthan, • Mastan, Sarai-
balii orHalia.
dh&rua.

DakshinS. Uriy& or D&khinatya.
Jajpuria orUttar-Sreni.
Raghunathid.

Jaia or Purbiyd.

Besides those mentioned above,
are found among TJtkal Brdhmans

Bharadw&ja.

Ootra 8 as of Vaidiks.
Ditto.

Balar&m or Balabhadri&.

the following gotras or seotions

Angirasa.

Autathya.

Baikh&yana.

Basishtha.

Bisw&mitra.

Garga.

Jaimini.

Jdmadagna.

Kaphalya.

K&mak&yan.

Kauchha.

Paithinasa.

Pautimanna.

S&nkriti.

Saunaka.

Taittiriya.

Uddalaka.

Upamanna.

Digitized by LjOOQle

BRAHMAN.

Mr John Beanies gives the following scheme of the subdivisions
of the Brahman oaste in Northern Orissa, — first, according to the
Veda, whose ritual they profess to observe, and seoondly into gotraa
or families: —

I.— Dikhinitya Sreni or Southern Line.

1. Rig- Veda.

Ootra or Sections. Upddki or Titles.

Basishtha. Sirangi.

„ Mahipitra.

Kisyapa.

Dharagautama.

Gautama.

Parisara.

Kaundinya.

2. Satna-Veda.

Nanda.

Tripithi.

Udgiti, vulgo Uti.
Dibedi, vulgo Dube.
Tripith i, vulgo Tihari.

3. Tajur-Veda.

Bharadwija —

a. Bharadwija.

b. Sambhukar.

c. Lindi.

Atreya —

a. Dattitreya.

b. Krishnitreya.
Haritasa.

Kiuchhasa.

Gh r itakauch hasa.
Mudgala.

Batsasa.

Kityiyana.

Kapinjala.

Sirangi.

Misra.

Nanda.

[Ratha.

Mahipitra.

Disa.

Satpathi, vulgo Pathi, also
Satpasti.

Disa, Achirya, Misra.
Sirangi.

Disa.

II t _Uttara Sreni or Northern Line.

1. Rig- Veda.

Not represented.

Digitized by t^oosle

BRAHMAN.

Ootra or Sections.

Kdtydyana.

Sdndilya.

Krishnatreya.

Bharadwdja.

Barshagana.

Kaphalya.

Gautama.

2. Yajur. Veda.

Up&dhi or Titles.

Pandd.

ii &nd Ddsa.
»

Misra.

•i

Kara.

3. Athnrva-Vtda.

Angirasa. Upadhydya, vulgo Upadhya.

Of lower branches, and considered inferior to the above, are—
Sdnkhydyana. Mahanti.

Ndgasa. ' Dasa, Mahanti.

S4kadwlpi| Bhojyak, B/iuist.

Their gotras are the
same as in the other
sub-oastes of Brdhmans.

Pur or sections.

Adridr.

Ahildsaridr.

Aiydr.

A wad hi dr.

Baghwdr.

Bariswdr.

Barsdi.

Barwdr.

Batsauriark.

Batwakariydr.

Bhalauniar.

Bhedbakardr.

Bherapdkri.

Bholark.

Binsaiyd.

Budhwdrk.

Chadchdk.

Chandratidr.

Chandrorh.

Chhariydr.

Chhathwark.

Chhatrawdr.

Chitauridr.

Chonchwdr.

Dadhpuridrk.

Dakrdhi.

Debkulidr.

Dehldsaridr.

Deodhiar.

Deorah idr.

Dewdrk.

Dihwdr.

Dumaridr.

Gadahpurnd.

Gadrahd.

Gandark.

Gochhpurid.

Gorhdrk.

Gunsaiyd.

Hadauridr.

Hemridrk.

damudr.

durhd.

duthibaridr.

Karaidrk.

Kausikdrak.

Khajurdk.

Khandarp.

Khantwdr.

Khatsopdrk.

Kondrk.

Koran kdrk.
Kukurbandhd.
Kunddrk.
Kurdi.

Lokdrk.

Madhubanid.

Madhurasidrk.

Digitized by LjOOQle

BBAHMAJS.

•29

P ur

^ahdauridr.

Maheswar.

Mahrasid.

Makhaiwdr.

Mdkhpawar.

Malauridr.

Mdrkanddrk.

Mauriydr.

Nandark.

Osidr.

Pachhwdr.

Panchbatiar.

Panchhai.

Panchkanthi.

Pandidr.

Paridr.

Pathaidr.

Patiydr.

Pawaiydr.

or sections.

Punddrk.

Punrakhid.

Rahdauridr.

Sabhaiydr.

Saphdrk.

Senduridr.

Sikauriar.

Sirmauridr.

Soniydr.

Soriydr.

Sukhsdrd.

Swetbhadra.

T arkanyark.
Thakurmairar.
Udaniydr.
Uldrk.

Urwdr.

Usahiydrk.

Nepdli Brahmans.

Endogamous divisions. Ootra or sections. Thar or sub-sections.

Upddhydya.

Kamiya.

Purabi.

Bdsishta ... ^

"Bhatta Rdi.
Dawdri.

Chdlisa, Cheliaya.
Bhardri.

Bisishta Sakti.
Pardswar.

Tinai Prabardi.
J3rahmimd Dhdn.

( Rijdl.

Dhanjaya ... ( Gura Gdin.

( Homya Gdin.

Atrdi ...-j

’ Parel, PondydL
. Arjel.

Kausika ... j

r Regmi.
LSoberi.

Kaundin . J

Dhartd Kausik ...

f A'charjya.

Pardjuii.

Neopdni, Nivipdnya.

Nepal iyd.

Bardl.

, Khoddl or Khandydl.

Digitized by {jOOQie

BRAHMAN.

Endogamous divisions. Gotra or sections. Thar or sub-sections.

i Suberi.
odmar Katydl.
Bagalya.

( Dohdl.

" { Langsdl or Lamsdl.

fGautam.

| Khatiwara.

...^ Misra.

Champdgdin.
(.Archndni.

... Dhimire.

... Adhikdri.

... Dhungidl.

J Timilsind.

”• j Kainrdla.

... Dhdkal.

... Sapankotyd.

{ Murtel.

Pyakarel or Pokhar-
yal.

Bachh

Atri

Kdsyap

Kasya

Agasti

Mautkaha

Upamanya

Kannia

Gargya

Tn addition to the above, Hodgson’s list contains the following
than : —

Khandl.

Chavala Gdin.

Chdmkasaini.

Nirola.

Yasta Gdin.

Purdeaini.

Mahdrdshtra.

Banjdra.

Dhurdri.

PakonyaL.

mji.

Bhurtydl.

Sattyal.

Soti.

Paneru.

Rimdl.

Osti.

Loityal.

Devakotya.

TJtkuli,

Sidhydl.

Parbatya.

Kandaria.

Gotanya.

Kaikyal.

Ghartmel.

Ghora8aine.

Rupakheti.

Ghartydl.

Risydl.

Desjd.

Temrakoti

Dhongdn.

Rukdi.

Uphaltopi.
Pdrijai Kavala.

Duldl.

Saival.

Bajgdin.

Laiydl.

Pandit.

8atola.

Dotiydl.

Teva Pdnya.

Ghuroholi.

Danjal.

Kaphalya.

Kelatoni.

Singydl.

Gaithaula.

Gilai.

Bikr&l.

Gairaha Pipli.

Lahoni.

Ukniydl.

Bhattvdl.

Gajniydl.

Ghimirya.

Simkhdrd.

Phuuvdl.

Muthbdri.

Digitized by ^.oosle

BUNA.

Bamia, Bunn.

ChciilT, Ba r chain.

Sub-castes.

Sections.

Nil. Bharadw&ji.

Charanbansi.

K&syapa.

S&ndil.

dhalund, Tsakmd, Tsak, Thek (Burm)-

Sub-tribes.

Septs.

1. Chakmd.

2. Doingnak.

3. Tungjainya.

Septs of the Chakma
sub-tribe.

I Amu.

B&mu, named after rivers.

Barbora.

Baruwa.

Batalya, a chisel.

Boga.

Borsege.

Bung.

Bungza.

Darjea.

Daw in.

Dhaona, be of the mended cloth,
i Dhurjya, the wearer of bhimraj feathers.
Durjea.

Ichapocha, the eater of rotten shrimps.
Kald, a plantain tree.

Kengragati, 1 the giver of the big crab.
Khambe.

Khiongje.

Kurd, named after rivers.

Kurjya. the idle one.

Kutua.

Larma.

Leba.

Loskra.

' Molima, named after rivers.

1 The progenitor of this section is said to have presented to the head of
the tribe a crab so large that a pig could cross the river Kanguli on its back.

Digitized by t^oosle

CHAKMA.

Sub- tribes.

Septs of the Chakmi
sub- tribe — concluded .

Septs.

Molima-Sege.

Phaksa.

Phe-dang-sirri.

Phedungsa.

Phema.

Pirabhanga, the fat man who broke the
stooL
Poa.

Poma.

Rangyacelunya, the lover of shells or
mother-of-pearl.

Ranyin.

Sadonga.

Sege.

Sekowa.

Sho&lyia, the jester.

They a.

Toinya.

Uksarri.

Warggu, came of a river.

Septs of the Tung-
jaiuya sub-tribe.

Aruycii, the man as thin as a skeleton.
Bkdk\ f a chisel.

Bangcil, descended from a Bengali father.
Bhumar, he of high hack ribs.

Bol&, he whose family was as numerous as
the wasps.

Duny&.

Fariansa, he who excelled in wickedness.
Gochalya, the strong man.

Ich&, he who was too fond of shrimps.
Kachui, they who built their houees in
a row.

Karuci.

Lambacha.

Lulang , 1 the devil.

Millong.

Monglci.

IVIo-u.

Ongyo.

Puma.

1 A girl became pregnant, but would not name her lover. She was
severely beaten, and was rescued by a devil, who was supposed to be the
father of the child.

Digitized by ^.oosle

CHAMAB.

(Ehattt£r, Chdmar, Charmakar , RaM-Das.

Titles : — Be4r, Boh it, Chunipdrd, KIpri, Mahaldir, Mahar^,
Marar, Mehtarii, N&ik, Panarha, Pradh&n, R&ut.

Sub-castes.

Chamir-TSnti.

Dhdrh.

Dhusia.

Dohar.

Goria.

Jaiswara.

Janakpuri.

Jaunpuri.

Kh&ti-Mahara.

Kordr.

Larkor.

Magahia.

Pachhiin.

Sections..

Of the Dhusia
sub- caste.

Hondagi&.

JoriAhA.

Moghalii.

Sonpursa.

Thengiit.

Septs in Chota Nagpur.

Azghalla.

Dhusia.

Harbans, cannot wear
bones in anj shape.
Kachud, tortoise.
Karwa.

Kerketa, a bird.
Mahu&i bassia latifolia.
Mus, rat.

N&g, cobra.

R&ot.

SAndh, bull.

Saur, a fish.

Tirki.

Jaiswara, servants.

Mangatiwa, professional beggars.

Dhusia or dhusia, shoe-makers and harness-
makers.

Katua, leather-cutters.

Kori. weavers, grooms, field-labourers.

Kuril, workernn leather.

Rangiya, leather-dyers,
datua, labourers.

Tantua, maker of leather strings. ,

Sub-oastes enumerated
by Mr. Sherring.

Aharwar, Azimgarhia or Birheria, Dakshinia, Dohar, Qaraiya, daiawara
datlot, datua, Kaiyan, Kanaujia, Kuril, Kori or KorchAmrAp ato mcptionfid by
Sir Henry Elliot and Mr. Beames.

Digitized by {jOOQie

CHANDAL.

ClnmMI, Nama-Sudra, Nama, Changa , Chdnrdl, Rotator Rotwdl,
Pratham-bakya , Swapacha , Nishad, Antebad.

Titles:— Bigh, tiger, Bhdla, Bisw&s, D&s, D&uk, bird, Dhili, Dule,
Hdit, Hajrd, H&ldir, H&thi, elephant, H&uikar, Khdn,
Laskar, Mahari, Majumddr, Mandal, Mdnjhi, Mirdada,
Mistri, Namadhdni, Padhwdn or Pradhdn, Pandit,
Pardmdnik, Pdtra, Phaliyd, fish, Rdi, Sintri, Send,
Seull, Shumardar, Singh, Tengri, fish.

Sab-castes.

In Eastern
Bengal.

’ Halwah.

Ghdsi.

Kandho or Behard.
Karri I, Keral.

Bari.

Berud.

* Pod.

Baqqdl.

Sarilva.

Amarabddi.

Bdchhdr.

.Sandwipd.

Sections.

Kdsyapa.

In Central
Bengal.

Dhdni.

ddlid.

Jidni, Jiuni.

Kdrdl.

Nunid.

Siali.

In Western
Bengal.

fChdsi.

Helo.

Jelo.

Kesarkalo.

Kotdl.

« Mdjild.

I Nalo.

I Nunid.

I Pdnphule.

Saro.

LSiule.

Bharadwdja.

Lomasa.

Sdndilya.

Digitized by ^.oosle

CHASA.

€h£s4.

Titles:— Lenk6, Puh&r, Muduli, Sw£in, Parid£, Padh&n,
Visvv&l, N&ik, Raut, den£, S&mal, Mahanti.

Sub-castes. Sections.

Orhchdsd or Mundi-chds5.

Ben&tiy&. K&syapa. •

ChukuliyS. S£l-rishi.

Sukuliya.

<&hMi>hob£, Chdsddhopd.

Titles: — R&i, PSik, Haladhar, Ballava, SSn, Samaddar,
Biswas, H&ld&r, H£zar4, Mistri, R&j-Mistri.

Hypergamous Groups.

Kulin. I Maulik.

Sub-castes.

Uttar-Rdrhi.

Dakhin-Rarhi.

Barendra.

Sections.

Alimdn.

Atulrishi.

Baghrishi.

Brihatbat.

Ohabalrishi.

Kasyapa.

S&ndilya.

©hero.

Titles : — Babudn, Kanw&r, Manjhi, Man£r, Rautid, S&nw&t.
Sub-castes. Sections*

B&ra-Haz&r. (a) Totemistio—

Tera-Haz&r orBirbandhi. Besrd, hawk.

Kachchhu5, tortoise.
Kunwarddr.

Mahto.

Mailw&r.

Sonwani.

Sorani&.

T uruw&r.

(b) Brahmanical —

Kasyapa, etc.

3 a

Digitized by ^.oosle

CHIK.

Sub-tribes.

dhik. See fMlt.

Titles Baraik, Mahato.

Septs.

Aujana.

Baghail, tiger.

Bagti.

Bajarpuriji.

Bakura, paddy-bird.

Balbandhiya, are bound to tie up their
hair.

Banichar.

Bar, Ficus Indica.

Bara.

Barabhaia, ship.

Bati.

Bhengraj, kingorow.

Bhojraj, a kind of medicine.

Bichwar, a centipede.

BorS, a kind of 6nake.

Chachet, a small bird.

Chaenchair, a bird.

Chand, moon.

Chikanjari.

DarkS, born out of a crack in the earth.
Dhan, paddy or rice soup.

Dhandn, plum bushes.

Dihbans.

Dip, may not eat after lights have been
lit.

Dundoar, an owl.

Gandha, flying bug.

Gandhi.

Ghatoar.

Goherwar.

Hanuman, monkey.

Harin, deer.

Induar, a kind of eeL
Janamkiar.

Kachua, tortoise.

Kaita, ourry vegetable.

Kansi, field grass.

Kara.

Karhar, a fruit.

Katri, subject to fits.

Kechengia.

Keora, a flower.

Khambha, fork of a tree.

Khukri.

Korla, fig.

Digitized by

Google

CHIK.

Sub-trib«. Septs.

Kotrii a small deer.

Kowriar.

Kulhai, a tiger.

Kumharia, a tribe.

Kusumni, a tree or its fruit.
Loharbans, iron.

Loyna.

Maghi.

Mahabaar, may not kill or bhase the
wild boar.

Mahanadi, name of a river.

Mahtoar. a title.

Malta.

Maria.

Malua.

Mawar, peacock.

Munjaniar, a fruit from whioh oil is
extracted.

Mus, field-rat.

N&g, oobra.

Newra, mongoose.

Nikharbans.

Nimuani.

Phul, flower.

Phungune.

Rikhiasan, may not eat beef or pork.
S&g, vegetable.

Samjhar.

Saur, a fish.

Singi, horn.

Sinjikuria.

Sonmanik.

Sonwasi.

Surijhabu.

Tajna, name of a river.

S^VtU, Dam-yi, Tami, Kotwal, Nagarchi, Darji.

Bhusuwal.

Burdewi.

Damma Parriwir.
Darnal.

Dhuli.

Than or Septa.

Kala Kh&ti.
Kurki Dholiar.
Kumo Beheri.
Mohara.
Mutai.

Panchkuti.

Shewa.

Sunam.

Sundas.

Sungaru.

Digitized by ^.oosle

DEJONG LHORI.

gcjong |£hori (Dejong Sikhim), Lhopa Bhotia or Tibetans

of the south.

Tongdu Rui shi.
Bed (d silent)
tshan-gye.
Ruichhung.

Beh

•a

Sub-tribes. Bui, Thar or septs.

f Guru T&shi, the blessed rui
whioh Guru Pema was guide.
Shang-dah-bo, ancestor born at
his maternal uncle’s when some
tutelary deities were being pro-
pitiated.

Tshe-gyu-thah, the family which
sprang from the Buddha of life.
Yui-then-bo, anoestor turned out
of his fatherland.
fBangrongpd.

Bhadpi.

Dokhangpi.

Ghingpi.

Gnyambipi.

Gyon-sah-p£, he of the new
monastery.

Khyung-toipA.

Lagdingpi.

Of the Bed tshan gye sub-tribe^ Lin-dseh-bo.

' Nam-tsang-koba.

Pon-po

Mixed septs of low origin 1

Lowest septs of Bhotias 1

Septs whioh emigrated from
Tibet and North Bhotan 1

Chhungpd.

Lhasung, domestio
priest of all the ruin.
Nah-dik.

| Nambon.

LYo-chang.

Pu-tsho-bo, a mixed progeny of
Lepcba mother and Tibetan father.
rAssampd.

I Chungyepi.

...< Kah-tsho-bo.

I Mang-beh-p4.

(_Namang-po.

Doh-ruhb-pn, one dwelling under
the feet.

Doh-zepd, living in rough and
craggy rocks.

Gangye-pa, dwelling behind a hill.
Shvag-tsangpi.
fChnumbipi.

| Hah-po.

< Koyungpo.

I Shyah-p£.

LT oip&.

1 These groups of septs form in each case endogamons aggregates, the
members of which do not intermarry with the other sub tribes.

Digitized by

Google

DEJONG LHOfil.

Sub-tribes.

Septs which emigrated from
Bhotan and Nepal 1

Of the Buichhang sub-tribe ...

Bui, Thar or septs.

Bendah.

Bindumbo.

Gah-oh, blacksmiths.

Gurumbo, Gyu-rumbo.
Ling-tamba.

Ongddhba.

Parubo.

Phensa-pd.

Pu-tsibo.

Pyo-chhembo.

Sang-behbo.

Shyag-chom-bo.

Tsong-zubo.

Yong-tong-ba.

Yulsahbi of new oountry.
: Doromp4.

Khol.

Lah-ogpd, dwelling below la or
mountain-top or pass.
Mang-tshang-wa.

Nahmah-pd.

Shyag-ding-pd or Shyag-tshang-
pa.

Thazoepd.

* These groups of septs form in each case endogamous aggregates, the
members of which do not intermarry with the other sub-tribes.

ghinuk.

Titles: — Mandar, Raut, Rai, Mahato, Kdmatl, Khawds,
Ghibihdr, Saghdr, Bahfd, Bahiot, Sankatwdr.

Sub- cutes. 1 Sections.

Chhilatid or Silhotid. Kdsyapa.

Magahyd. Ndg.

Banodhid.

Tirhutid or Chiraut.

Jaiswdr.

Kanaujia.

Kahpariyd.

Dudhwar or Dojwdr.

Sunri-Dhdnuk.

Kathautid.

Khawdsid \

5?. and £' nr In Purniah.

Gharbeta or (

Gharbait. )

1 Longbasta, Mathuri&, Katharia, Jaisw&r, Magahyi, Do j war, and Chhila-
tiya are given by Sir H. Elliot ; Yasawar (Jaisw&r), M again, Dojwar, Ckhila-
tiy4 are mentioned by Buchanan.

Digitized by ^.oosle

DHENUAR.

ghcnmtr.

Sab- tribes.

Nil.

Septs.

Baiga, a tribe.

Bard.

Karwar, a tribe.
Sanuani, can’t wear gold.
Sumai, a kind of fish.

Sab- tribes . 1

Agnii.

Liter.

Dungii.

Sphuilil, Dhemil, Maulik.

Septs.

Chongi.

Dauwi.

Kauwi.

Ringi.

1 It is convenient to describe these groups ss sub-tribes. They are not,
however, strictly endogamous, as has been mentioned in the article on Dhiall.

IN BENGAL AND OBISSA.
gltoM, Dhopa, Dhupi, Dhdcaka.

Title Dis, Mistri, Rajak, Sabhi-Sundar, Sikalya.

Sub-castes. Sections.

1. Rimer Dhobi "I Eastern (a) Totemistio—

2. Sitir Dhobi 3 Bengal. Nigasa (Orissa).

4! !th isi ) Central <*>

5. Hijari-Samij 1 Bengal. Alamyin.

6. Niti Sini / Kisyapa.

7. Bara-Samij

8 . Chhota-Samij

9. Dhobi-Samij

10. Rirhiya-Samaj

11. Bangali

12. Gorii

13. Maghayi

14. Khotti

15. Bhului

16. Jugidii

17. Sundip

18. Uriyi Dhoba ... Orissa.

Hughli.

Manbhum.

oanauya.

] Noakbali.

Digitized by LjOOQle

DHOBI.

IN BEHAR AND CHOTA NAGPUB, EXCEPT MANBHU5I.
JOhobi, Ujli, Baith^,

Titles : — Gozar, Mahto, Fteut.

Sab-castes. Section.

1. Kanaujid. Kdsyapa.'

2. Maghava.

3. Belwdr.

4. Awadhiyd.

6. Bdtham.

6. Gorsdr. ,

7. Gadhayd, keep donkeys.

3. Bangld, immigrants from
Bengal.

Turkiaor Shekh, Mahom-
edan.

Doi, Chatanta , Baidya, Lakhipwtra, Patia Dds.

JjOIlt, Domra , sometimes called Chand&l by outsiders.

Titles:— Malik, Marar, Mehalo, Mihtdr, Marik, Mirddhd, Raut.

Sub-castes.

In Behar —

Bdnsphor or Bdnsbakurd, basket-makers: have nothing to
do with funerals, and do not eat beef.

Chapanyd, make baskets and build the bamboo framework

which supports the thatohed roof of a house.

Dakhina or Turi | Angwdi r.

| Deswar.

Dhdprd, sweepers.

Dharkdr, workers in cane.

Gad ah i a, breeders of donkeys.

Hari or Bangali, probably immigrants from Bengal.

Harkdr, scavengers.

Larhora or Purbdl-Mihtdr, scavengers and basket-makers.
Magahiya, in North Behar cultivators and thieves; in Gva
basket-makers. 3

Pachainyd.

{ Bhojpurid \

Ghar-Raut f sweepers.

Ghdzipurid j

Supdrd.

Tirhutiyd.

Uttariyd, workers in sirki basket and mat-makers.

Digitized by ^.oosle

DOM.

Sab-castes.

In Bengal—

Ankurid or Ankhuti, basket-makers.

Bdj un i d, musioians.

Bdnukid, breed silkworms and work in silk filatures in Mur-
sbedabad and Rajshahye.

Bisdelid, make baskets and palm-leaf mats.

Dai-Pom, the men are day-labourers and the women serve
as midwives.

Dhesid Dhdkdl or Tapaspurid, remove dead bodies, etc.
Dhold, supposed to oome from Dhalbhum.

Ghaserd, cut grass for sale.

Kdlindi, cultivators and basket-makers.

Kaurd, breed pigs and aot as scavengers.

Magahiyd, musicians and basket-makers.

Mdnddrond.

Murdafarash, remove dead bodies.

Sdnchi.

Tdldihond, make palm-leaf mats.

Section..

Baithd.

Chi ran} i&.

D4gri.

Darbe.

G&in.

H4t.

Isar.

Kotwal.

Lakrih&r.

M&njhi.

Marar.

Marik.

Masrakhiyfi.

Nauriy&.

Sakr&it.

Saurrt.

Sikrar.

Sipahiyfi.

Of the Dakhind or Turi sub-caste £

H&ri.

Mukarid.

Of the Dh&prd sub-caste ... ( Parwarid.

] Pusaiti.

( Rosr&it.

I K&ibt&r.

M&njhi.

Mehta r.

R&ut.

Sarin.

Digitized by LjOOQLe

DOM.

Sub-castes.
In Iiehar —

Of the Tirhutiyd sub-oaste

Of the Magahiyd sub-oaste

Of the Paohainyd sub-oaste

Sections.

Barbattd.

Belsandi.

! Chanauli.

Hansd.

Hdr.

Maggah.

Mahwd.

Murwd.

Pusadih.

Sirpur.

Sonpur.

Teswdr.

T ubkd.

I Akhauri.

Belsandi.

Chaudhri.

Chauhdn.

Hdnsd.

dddu.

, Mdnjhi.

Mirdaha.

Rdjd.

Rdnd.

Santari.

Sdwant.

Teswdr.
i Tewari.

Adhdrpur.

Barabatid.

Bargamdet.

Belsandi.

I Bhojpuri.
Bikrampur.
Chahraitd.

Chanda ulydr.

Dhoti.

Hdnsd.

Hansotd.

J Kanauli.

\ Kolandh.

Mohbaita.

Murba.

Pahasrait.

Pohobait.

Pusd.

Pusetd.

Sansdit.

Sirwdr.

Sonpuryd.

Tabkar.

Tibaryd or Teswar.

Digitized by LjOOQLe

DOM.

Sub-castes.

In South Manbhum-

Aturd.

Mold.

Sikharid.

Septs.

Azghala.

Dhusia.

Harbans, bones can’t wear in any
shape.

Kachua, tortoise.

Karwa.

Kerketa, a bird.

Mahua, a tree; wine is made
from its flower.

Mus, rat.

Nflg, cobra.

Raot.

Sflndh, bull.

Saur, a fish.

Tirkl.

SOM, Dusadh.

Titles:— Chaukiddr, Gorait, Hdjard or Hdzard, Mdhato, Mdnjhi,
Pdsbdn, Rdi, Rdm.

Sub-castes. Sections.

Magahiyd.

Bhojpurid.

Kanaujid.

Pailwdr.

Kdmaror Kdnwar.
Kurin, Kuri, or Kurmd.
Dhdr or Dhdrhi.
Silhotiaor Sirotid.
Bahai id. -§

. 8 ?

Agiydri.

u ©

Barbdik. J

Bdrik.

j| 1

Bedr. Oat**

Bhaddiyd.

Bhunsi Kurtho.

Darbe.

Fotaddr.

Hdt.

Hazdri.

Isar.

Khankardrd.

Kotwdl.

Kumarsan Bakri. g

Mahrdna.

Mahton.

Mdlti.

Mandar.

Mdnjhi.

Marik.

Mirdahd.

Parbe.

Patwe.

Rdi.

Rdna.

Rdut.

Sanda.

Bddshdhi.

Bdra Kharak.
Panjiar.

Aghrdit.

Amam.

Amol.

Assiswar.

Bhabdniswar.

Busgarait.

Kamldit.

Kariont.

Lab Nagarid.
Madhupurid.
Mahabbat.
Mahesbardit.
Mainkisrdr.
Nabandpurid.
Purukhinu Na-
rdin.

Rdjdisur.

Thahrait.

Digitized by

Google

gandhabanik.

©UltilltabUttih, Gandhabaniyd, Baniya, Putuli.

Titles Of the DesA sub- caste — SAHA, SAdhu, LAhA, KhAn ; of the
Aut sub-caste — Datta, DA, Dhar, DhAr, Kar, NAg.

Sub-castes.

Aut-Asram.

Chhatris-Asram.

DesA-Asram.

Sankha-Asram.

Sections.

AlamyAn.

BharadwAja.

KAsyapa.

KrishnAtreya.

Modgalya.

Nrisingna.

Ras-rishi.

SAbarna.

SAndilya.

^Ungot^, Qangautd.
Title Mandar.

Sub-castes.

1. Jethkar.

2. Maghaya.

Sections.

GangAjhi.

JAhnavi.

©unrAv.

Sub-castes.

Nil

Section.

Aliman.

©UCCU, Qadariya , Bhenrihar.

Titles : — KambliA, Kammali, Marar, Raut.

Sub-castes.

Sections.

1. Dhengar.

2. FarakhAbAdi.

3. GangAjali. .

4. Nikhar.

Of the
Dhengar
sub-oaste.

Chak, ChikwA (Mahomedan).

Chandel.

ChaudhuriA.

KAsyapa.

NAnkar.

Digitized by ^.oosle

GHASI.

©hfoi.

Sub -castes.

Sections.

H&rl.

SimarlokS.

Sona&ti.

Ahir, a tribe.

Air, a kind of fish.
Badhiria, bats.

B&gh, tiger.

Bhat, a tribe. Degraded.
Bhuana, a tribe. Bhuiya.
Bhu inkora, hog.
Bhurungia, a kind of
tree.

Bunduar, a tribe.
Chahubar.

Chinear.

Daspuria.

Desoar, a tribe.

Dhamna sap, a red
snake, poisonless snake.
Dowalbandhi.

Golvar.

Kachua, tortoise.

Kalhia, Lohar.

Kasi&r, corruption of
Kisyapa?

Kewat.

Loharbans, iron-worker.
Malar, a tribe.

Mohdiar, honey-bee.
Mukhi, Mukhi is a
person, one of five, who
can reinstate outoastee
by eating first with
them. Mukhi oan lose
bis own jat. Mukhi
only wear pagri.
Pandki, dove.

Phansia.

Rajbandh.

Rajput, a tribe.

Sakri.

Sanukra, shell.
Sanwasi, cobra.
Simarl£s4, gum.
Simarloka, a tree.
Sonwan, cannot wear
gold.

Tirki.

Uraon, a tribe.

Digitized by t^oosle

GO ALA.

(SoiM, Go&l, Goir, Gopa, Gopdl , Pallab-Qopa, Afiir, Alhir.

Titles: — In Bengali- Bdrik, Chomar, Dhdli, Ghosh, Jana,
Mandal, Pardmdnik.

In Behar — Bharari, Bhogta, Chaudhri, Ghoraila,
Khirahd, Mahato, Mandar, Mdnjhi, Marik,
Panjiara, Rdi, Rdst, Saonra, Singh.
Sub-castes. Sections.

In Bengal —

Pallabor Ballabh. Almasi or Alamydn.

Gaura or Go-ba idya. Bharadwdja.

Gop or Ghosh Goald. Gautama.

Karanjd. Kdsyapa.

Kajol. Madrisi or Madhukulya.

Bdgre or Ujaini. Sdndilya.

Madhu Godld.

Rdrhi.

Gumia.

Ahir or Mahishd God 14.

Magai or Mdgadhi.

I Pallal.

Ldheri.

Mula.

Gdwd.

Ddgdnid.

Bhogd j j Hjpergamous.

In Orissa —

Dumala Jadupuria Godrd.

Gaura or Gopopuria. '

Magadha Godrd.

Mathurdor Mathurdbdsi.

In Behar—

Goridor Oahidra. Bhadrdj.

Bhdtdsan.

Chalasinghi.

Chalasan.

Dasil.

Dhenu.

Gaudhal.

Ualiasinghi.

Jethautid.

Kdidsan.

Ldhdgot.

Mahraul.

Ndgdsan.

Ndgrdj.

Palcra.

Sakraul.

Singhror.

Tanokl.

Digitized by ^.oosle

GO ALA.

Sub-castes.

Sections.

Majraut or Naomulid.

Abhepur.

Aganpurid.

Anrhrdhi.

Aunrid.

Bdergod.

Baini (Mhddes).
Bdiitpur.

B dl dgdch h pokrdm.
Bdlgdch.

Barsdm.

Bdsdithi.

Basdrh.

Bastiburhond.

Baurdm.

Belwdr.

Bhdonrod.

Bheludih.

Bhotieth.

Chdmudr.

Chdmuk-Shdhpur.

Chdnchar.

Chdndkatord.

Chaumukhdih.

Chiksdri.

Dabhrait.

Dahiet.

Dhdman.

Dharampuria.

Dodlak.

Dudhpuriet.

Gdngthaid.

Ghiuddhdr.

Gobargdrhd.

Golrdm.

Gotsobhni.

Gudbdri.

Habibpur-Phupidih.

Hansi.

Jagatpur.

Jailok.

Jhdj.

Kabdi.

Kailwdr.

Kdmrdm.

Kdnhdiwdr.

Kdtaiyd.

Kdthddularpur.

Khdjuri.

Khdnrsimdrid.

Kherho.

Khuthd-Bhagwdnpur.

Digitized by ^.oosle

GOAL*.

Sub-castes

Sections.

Kirtoli4.

Kotsobhni.

Labnagar-Kumet.

L4gmet4.

Lakshanpuri4.

L4w4pur.

Lepuriet.

Lev4ti4

' Barar.
Chhaior.
, D4mu.

Loh4r.

Madhepuriet.

Mah4r4no.

Mahisirupj&n.

Mailidhurlak.

Mailw4r.

Manickhak-dudhpurii.
Megh al bar i&rpur.
Mendipur.

Mehm4npur.

Mithorid.

Mogalk4ch4.

Nim4chandpur4.

Pachhipargand.

Pdtori.

Pipret.

Rdghopurdih.

Raghunathpurdidr.

Rdjdpdkur.

Rdjdpatischhni.

Rasdkmdrhe.

Sahasradih.

Sahrwdr.

Sakarpuriet.

Sdlkhini.

Samastipur.

Sankarpur.

Sdnrdri (Jaideb).
Sarespargand-Ddddd i h .
84th iet.

Siloth4er.

Sobh4dih.

Sobhni-Tdjpur.

Somnidih.

Sondm.

Temdih.

Tilatw4r.

Titi4b4mb4r.

Ulwdr.

Umethw4r.

Usr4m.

Digitized by LjOOQle

GO ALA.

Sub-cMtea.

Kanauji4.

Kishnaut or

Bargow4r.

Dhanroir.

Chau4ni4.

Chauth4.

Goit.

Kantit4h4.
Puhod.
Sep4ri.
Banpar.
Guji&r or I

Sections.

Chaudhri.

Gopa.

Kaksa.

Kisyapa.

Khirahd.

Mandar.

Raksa.

Raut.

S4tmuli4. Alakiarid4rhu4.

Banikamauti.

Bhardu4r.

Chalasmghi.

Dad h raut.

Deseriet.

Dhanu.

deseriet.

Kach&simar.

K4tkiphulberi4.

Khel4ut.

Laungijarhu4.

Magh4chew4r.

M4jh4li4r.

M4lkarnauti.

Maikia.

N4gr4.

P4li.

Raj4p4ker.

Saud4b4ek.

8 on4pu r-Sakarw4r.
Sundar.

In general—

Aindw4r.

Baghw4r.

Barhadagia.

Bella.

Bhainsu.

Bhant.

Cher.

Dhokasan.

Dumar.

Jd4g4. Hat.

Kachhud.

K4si.

Khandudr.

Kurji.

Kut4r.

Lauri4.

Lukhasan.

Digitized by

Google

GOALA.

Snb>castes.

Gdddl, Ghosi

ddt.

In Chota Nagpur—
Bhogta.
Chauania.
Goro.
Kishnaut.
Lari.

Sections.

In general—

Mahar.

Mahtwdr.

Mongar.

Muntri.

Ndg.

Nagar.

Pur.

Sahbar.

Sanudr.

Sdu.

Saur.

Sud.

Sundi.

Tirki.

Undhil.

or Ghosin. Argarid.

Banrait.

Barbarid.

Bhddiswdr.

Bhindwdr.

Bhuskulid.

Birdji.

Ddrkhurid.

Dhurjhdr.

Goit.

Kdiwdr.

Kusieth.

Lohutid.

Mddowdn.

Mdhdtmd.

Marik.

Mukhid.

Ndgh.

Parseld.

Sddhak.

Santu-Kusdet.

Sunreit.

Surat.

Chitosid.

Gadhudi.

8epts.

Aind, a kind of eel.

Am, mango.

Bacha, calf.

Bdg, tiger.

Bar, Ficus Indicus.

4 a

Digitized by

Google

GOALA.

Sub-castes. Septs.

In Chota Nagpur — conoid.

Majhwat. Chownia, field-rat.

Saonrd. Demta, red tree-ant.

Sabor. Diller.

Gaegoal, pakar fruit forbidden.

Garaur.

Hasa, earth.

Kachua, tortoise.

Kaita, curry vegetable.

Kamal, lotus.

Kanojia, a tribe.

Karam, a tree.

Karsal.

Karth ia, a kind of grain or dill.

Kasai I, deer.

Kasi, a grass.

Maina, bird.

Markam.

Morpachi.

Mus, rat.

Ndg, oobra.

Phulwar.

Rajhans, swan.

Sir, arrow.

Sona, can’t wear gold.

Sonwani.

Tirki, can’t touoh any cattle after eyes
open.

In the North-Western
Provinces —

Sub-castes.

Sections.

Desi.

Apharid.

Bhdnsrid.

Nandbansi.

Bachds.

Chabdid.

Jadubansi.

Bachhwalid.

Charkhid.

Surajbansi.

Badgar.

Chikand.

Goaibansi.

Badnwadid.

Chitosid.

Ahar.

Bdghia.

Chord.

Katha.

Bdlwdn.

Ddgar.

Bdmborid.

Dahmd.

Bdn.

Ddmborid.

Bdthotid.

Deswdl.

Bhdklun.

Dhaid.

Bhdlkid.

Dhordn.

Bhdmbasrd.

Dhundhid.

Bhdngar.

Dhundhla.

Digitized by

Google

GOAL*.

Sub-caste8.

Sections.

In the North-Western

Did.

Kharsdn.

Provinces — conoid.

Dohdn.

Khdtddid.

Dudhlid.

Kheswd.

Dumdnid.

Khodid.

Dumdolid.

Khosd.

Dusdd.

Kidat.

Gadhdrid.

Koslid.

Gadhojid.

Lahanid.

Gahald.

Ldmbd.

Garwdl.

Lohchab.

Ghumld.

Luniwdl.

Gidad.

Mdhakarid.

Gigdnid.

Mahald.

Gothwdl.

Mahtd.

Gumi.

Makadd.

Gurdh.

Mdndhayd.

Hddd.

Moidn.

Hadkwdl.

Moldhid.

Hardd.

Mot lid.

Hudinwdl.

Nadhid.

Jddu.

Nahadid.

dadwdl.

Ndnid.

Jdnjdid.

Nigdnid.

dhddadid.

Nikum.

dhagdolid.

Nirbdn.

Kadaydn.

Pacherid.

Kadi an.

Padhdnid.

Kakas.

Parhar.

Kakrolid.

Puhdnid.

Kaldlid.

Rdbad.

Kalganid.

Rdrid.

Kalinwdl.

Sdhjdwdn.

Kaiot.

Sdlangid.

Katwadid.

Sdlodid.

Karird.

Sdmp.

Kdtha.

Sdtorid.

Kdtnid.

Sigadid.

Keswdl.

Sikhwdd.

Khadolid.

Simalwdl.

Khadotid.

Sisodid.

Khadumid.

Sundrid.

Khairwdl.

Tahalkid.

Khalhad.

Tdntld.

Khdmtd.

Thukrdn.

Kharnid.

Tundak.

Digitized by

Google

GOND.

(Strut).

Title : — Gaunjhu.

Sub-tribes.

Gond.

Rdj-Gond.
Dhokar-Gond. 1
Dorod-Gond or Ndik. J
dhord.

Septs.

Bdgh, tiger.

Baghel, tiger.

Besrd, hawk.

Bhainsd, buffalo.

Bodi a big river-fish.

Gaek, a kind oi fish.
Ganga, sea.

Ghora t horse.

Goh.

Hansa, geese.

Honti ( a kind of fish.
Jagaha, buffalo.

Jagat.

daipuria, name of a city.
Kachhud, tortoise.

Kdnd Machhri, fish.
Karmai a tree.

Koput.

Kusro.

Loha, iron.

Mahanadia, name of a river.
Marai.

Motii a head.

Ndg, snake.

Naitam, tortoise.

Pachia.

Phaguahi.

Poia.

Poiti.

Porrii a kind of hawk.
Sawani.

Sribakaria.

* Also called M4ngan-Gond from their begging habits.

* Colonel Dalton suggests that these may be the same as the Haile
or Dhurwe Gonds of the Central Provinces.

Digitized by {jOOQie

GONBHI.

(Simrhi, Malldh, Mach hud.

Titles:— Chaudhhri, Jethman, Mandar, Mukhidr,
Ndkhudd, Sahni.

Sub-castes. Sections.

Banpar.

Bdnt.

Chdb orChdbi.

Gordit.

Dhodr.

Jathot.

Khunaut or Khulaut.

Kdsyapa.

Kolh.

Mandar.

Kurin.

Marar.

Parbatti-Kurin.

Mukhiyd.

Semdri.

Pandit.

Pdnre.

Parihdr.

Rdut.

diot&it, Kordit, Baikar.

Sub-caste. Sections.

Nil Adra.

Aindowdr.

Bagh, tiger.

Baghudr.

Bar, Ficut Indicut.

Barodr.

Induar, a kind of eel.
Kdchhud.

Kerketd.

Khalkho, a fish.

Kujri, a fruit, makes oil.
Kujur.

Nonodr.

Pithodr.

Sdndh, bullock.

Sontirki, gold.

Tirki, cannot eat birds bom
blind, nor deep-setting eggs.
Topoar, a kind of bird.

Digitized by

Google

©ulgutil

GULGULIA.

Sub-eastee. Section.

Bantari. Nil.

Pachpanid.

Sukwdr.

<Sm*lUtg, Gurum, Gurungd , Gurunguh.

Sub-tribes.

Das-Gurung or
Char-Gotra.
Bdrah-Gurung.

Than or septs.

Khdti.

Khuldl,

Bagdlya.

Bardhi.

Bhumjan.
Bulung.

Bydpri.

Chandu.

Chdrki.

Dah Ldma.
Dhakaren.
Dhdren.

Ghdrti.

Gh undone.
Goliori.
Goldngya.
Gonduk.

Gosti.

Gothi.

Gudburi.

Jimel.

Kardmati.
Khangbha.
Khaptari.
r Chheni-lama.
Ghaleh.

Ghoneh.

Kohli.

| Kordngi.

Lamsani Ton- q
6 '-

Lhebo Lamsani.
Poinju-lama.
Pungi-lama.
Rdhul.

_Rdnd Lamsani.

Koki.

Ldma.

Ldmi Chhanya.
Leh Ldma.

Lopdte.

Lothdng.

Maddn.

Meghi.

Mengi.

Paindi.

Paldmi.

Pengi.

Shakya Ldma.
Siddh.

Suryabansi Ldma.

Thdthung.

Themjdni.

T oldngi.

Urunta.

Buthuja.

£ § Satal.

Segmang.

Digitized by LjOOQle

HAJJAM.

$)ajj6m, Ndi, Ndu, Naud.

Titles Naheri, Ostd, Thdkur.

Sub-castes.

Sections.

A wad hi 5.

Bangdli.

Kanaujid or Bidhut.
Magahiyd.

Sribastab or Bdstar.
Tirhutid.

Musalmanid or Turk-Naud.

Of Awadhxa Hqjjdms—

Amraut.

Barthodr.

Beauran.

Beraut.

Bilsar.

Chausar.

Denrgamid.

Dharmdhu.

Ekaunid.

Gaya.

Hargamid.

Jainagarid.

Jaipur.

Jandgadhid.

Jdrddr.

Jaru.

Jaum.

Jurvaunt.

Kaisab.

Kalaen.

Kant.

Kapur.

Karaf.

Karaunti.

Katur.

Khavur.

Kopinyar.

Kordnch.

Kujharid.

Kumair.

Kundi.

Kumat.

Mahrat.

Manerar.

Paithdn.

Parurd.

Pauridr.

Purdin.

Rat.

Samaiyar.

Sansihar.

Sisah.

Teldr.

Digitized by ^.oosle

HAJJAM.

Sub-castes. Sections.

Of Awadhid Hajjdmt— conoid.

Unri.

Urkiser.

Utraunid.

Of Kanaujid Hajjdmt—
Baksar-Chausd.
Kharpdik.

Maura.

Niparid.

Satarwdr.

Mithiyd.

Titles:— Chaudhri, Dds, Modi, Sdhu.

Sub-castes.

Kanaujid.

Magahiyd.

Bantirld or Balamtirid.
Pachhainya 1 Madesid.
Purbiyd 9 Madesid.
Bhojpurid.

Kordnch.

Maltarid.

Sections.

(Kachud.

Sections of the Kusmaulid.
Kanaujid sub-<( Laskorid.
caste. j Lukdthid.

(_Santop Palwdr.
r Akhandhdri.
Amghdt.
Bdsdrid.
Bdsdebpur.
Bharsahar.
Bijaibandras.
Dhakais.
Dharkid.

Gauli.
Gauthdhd.
Jdbdlid.
Kandwdr.

Kdro.

Kotsd.
Naorakhid.
Ndrauni.
Pachdttar.
Pachopdt.
Pdtor.
.Sdkarwdr.

8eotion of the \

Koranch sub- > Pindwdl.
caste. )

Sections of the
Bhojpurid sub-<
caste.

1 Also called Tinmulia Madesia. _

> Also called Chhaumulid Madesia.

Digitized by ^.oosLe

HALWAI.

Sections of the PurbiyA MadeaiA sub-caste.

Ainer.

Daridpdr.

Kdrkddo.

Naknesd.

Akhanbdri.

Dehddbandras. Kdrni.

Ninghidm.

Ami.

Deoghdt.

Kdsidon.

Pachauta.

Anar.

Dhdkais.

Kdtdri.

Pdchottar.

Anokonw&r.

Dhdkait.

Kdthej.

Paiharwdre.

Anrud.

Dhanej.

Kesaur.

Phuii.

As&rm&M&.

Dhema.

Khontd.

Raksise.

B£ddbasti.

Doem.

Kotsd or Korsd. Sahuri.

Bij&i.

Don.

Kurisdr.

Sakarwdr.

Baksdr.

Gahundgdond.

Kusarpdkri.

Sakin.

Bakul&ri.

Gangdpdli.

Lakhansarid.

Sakrol.

B&neban&ras.

Hdtser.

Larauni.

Sarauli.

Banidpithar.

Indri.

Lolutra.

Sidhpur.

Bansahar.

Jewel.

Mdhepurd.

Sikid.

Bcitor.

Jirdbasti.

Mdil.

Sinhagarh.

Chdnwdr.

Kddd.

Manimandras.

Sinharas.

Chausd.

Kalasdih.

Mdrar.

Sisotar.

Chilhdr.

Kdnddr.

Marud.

Sonhar.

Dddukli.

Kdngkol.

Mohdr.

Tdri.

Ddhdrak.

Kdra.

Ndgeswar.

Ubhar.

Karar.

Nagneswar.

Ughar.

Sections

of the Paohhainyd Madesid sub-caste.

Akhanbdri.

Dighwdrd.

Kachwdr.

Kausdr.

Bdsdrid.

Dumri.

Kdhinwdr.

Khirkatord.

Bhdrauli.

Gdngaulid.

Kdndeil.

Khoprihd.

Bijaibandras.

Gaudrtgahundr. K&np&kar.

Marudhd.

Chauberid.

Gureni.

Kdrddhdnauta.

, Ndrauni.

Dhdkdis.

Hdnridot.

Kdrdrihd.

Pdchottar.

Dhdnautd.

Jawdlid.

Kdru.

Panthpdkar,

Dhaneswar.

'jSjiXX, JHihtar, Hanantin.

Sub-castes. Section .

Bar5-Bh&giya or KSorl-pdik. Nil.

Madhya-bh&giy4or Madhaukul.

Khoreor Khoriy£.

Siuli.

Mihtar.

Bang&li.

Maghaya.

Karaiyi.

Purandwdr.

Digitized by {jOOQie

HO.

gO, Larka Kolh.

Sub-tribes. Septs.

None. > *

Alru.

d&mulu.

Angaria.

Janku Samrai.

Babangi.

Kaiundia.

Bandi.

Kisku. 1

Bansa.

Kor4.

Barpai.

Kuntia.

Birui.

Lagori.

Bodru.

Lamamaka.

Burial i Kaiundia.

Marl!. 1

Buri S&mat.

Munduia.

Chaki Dukri.

Murmu. 1

Champia Tubir.

Naguria.

Chatra Tuiu.

Paraya.

Chorai. 1

Pata Saya.

Echaghatu.

Pingua.

Em boro.

Podoro.

Gagria.

Purthi.

Gatsora.

Sauia.

Haiboru Umgi.

Sinkoi.

H&nsda. 1

Sundi Deogam.

Hembaran.

Tihu.

HesS.

Tin.

Hone-hog^.

Tudi. 1

1 These septs are common to the Hos and the Saut&ls.

Jelid, Jele, Jdlo, Jalui, Mali, Malo , Dhibar ,
Machhua, Mahifurosh.

Titles:— Arash, Bag, Barddhan, Bdrik, Beri, Bidydnto, Bisoi,
Biswas, Borai, Chaudhri, Das, Gal Guria, Haidar, Kundu,
|_aha, Mandal, Manjhi, Mauna, Pakre, Paide, P4rai,
Patra, Pradltin, Roji, Santra, Sarkdr, Sasmal, 3em.

Sab-castes. Sections.

In Noakhali —

Chatgdon. A'liman, .

Bhulua.

Jhalo.

Kalbartta.

Digitized by {jOOQie

JOLHA.

^0 1 It it, Jolahd, Julahd, Momin, Tdnti, Tatted.

Titles:— Lauki, Mahrano, Mahton, Mandar, Mandari, Manjhi,
Marik, Mehter, Nuri, Pandit, Sanahid, Taiyd.

Sub-castes.

Sections.

Tirhutid.

Kanaujia.

Chapota, Chanpadda.
Khatwe.

Kachud.
Pardsar.
r Mdnjhi.

Of the Chapota 1 Marar.
sub-caste. j Parimanik.
C Purbe.

Ju6ng.

8ub-tribes. Septs.

Nil. Alemba, hailstones.

Baitiriba, buffalo.

Bdlimba, mosquito.

Bdnaiba, bear.

Bdrdtaba, boar.

Dumridba, a kind of tree.

Gdghraba, paddy.

Hdtisalaba, elephant.

Jarigdmba, jari tree.

Kdlimba, tobacco flower.

Kdnchaba, dog.

Kelobo, bee.

Kerdlaba, pumpkin.

Kotdbdndab.

Lihimba, dove.

Mundiba, mahua tree.

Mundudb, small mushroom.

Odhalaba, fox.

Rangataba, a kiud of yellow-ooloured bird.
Rdsamba, mushrooms that grow on ant-
hills.

Sdramba, tigress.

Sundridba, red mushroom.

Talahaddba, palm tree.

Tenshdba, a bird.

Digitized by

Google

JUGI.

Jugi, Jungi, Jogi or Yogi, Nith.

Titles:— Adhikdri, Biswds, Daldl, Goswdmi, ddchanddr,
Mahanta, Majumddr, Ndthji, Pandit, Rdi, Sarkdr.

Sub-castes.

Rdrhi.

Bdrendra.

Baidik.

Bangaja.

Khelenda.

Bhulud.

Sundipd.

Functional groups.

Hdlwa.

Kambule.

Manihdri.

Rangroz.

Grihasth

' Dhandi Mandal.
Jnanbar.
Bhagan Bhdjan.
k Paban.

Ekddasi.

Mdsya.

'Religious groups.
Brdhman.

Sannydsi or Kdnphdt.
Dandi.

Dharmaghare.

Jdth.

Kdlipd.

Durihdr.

Aghorpanthi.

Bhatrihari.

Sdrangihdr.

Sections.

Kdsyapa.

Siva.

Adi.

Alarishi (Allamydn?).
Anddi.

Batuk.

Birbhairab.

Goraksha.

Matsendra, king of fish.
Min ( fish.

Satya, truth.

Eypergamous groups,
f Raghu.

Kulin

Mddhab.

Nimdi.

\ Pagmal.

Madhyald.

Bdngdl.

Digitized by ^.oosle

KADAB.

Sub-castes.

Kddar.

Naiyd.

gUfoar, Bhuiyd,

Sections.

BSre . 1

Bdrik.*

Darbe . 3

Hazari.

Kampti . 4

Kapari.

Mandar.

Mandri.

Manjhi.

Maraia.

Marik . 6

Mirddha.®

Natya . 7

Raut.

Rikhiasan.

1 Will marry only with Mird4ha, Kampti, and Bant.

* Will not marry with Mandar, Mird4ha, Bant, and B4re.

1 Will not marry with Marik and Bare.

4 Will marry only with B4rik, Kapari, Marik, Darbe, Minjhi, and Bare.

* Will only marry with Barik, K4pari, Manjhi, Mandar, and Naiyfi.

* Will marry only with Darbe, Manjhi, Kampti, and B4re.

7 Will not marry with Marik, Hazari, Naiya, Kampti, and BAre.

liafofr.

Titles : — Behard, Bhanddri, Kamkar, Mahara, Mahato,
Rdut, Sarddr.

Sub-castes.

Rawdni or Ramdni.
Dhurid.

Dhimar.

Kharwdrd.

T urhd.

Jaswdr.

Garhuk or Garauwd.
Bisarid.

Magahiyd.

Sections.

Alimdn.

Bando, a small wild cat.
Kanda, sweet potato.
Kansi, a kind of grass.
Kdsyapa.

Ndg.

Rawanpur.

Suar, a pig.

Jiiltbiiritit, Kaibartta-Bds, Chdsi-Das, Udlid-Bds , Pardsar-DaSf
Dhivara, Khydn.

Titles : — In Bengal — Adaki, Arash, Bdg, Bardhan, Bdrik, Berd*
Biswds, Bordl, Chaudhri, Dds, Gharui, Giri, Haladhar.
Hdlddr, ddnd, Kundu, Ldhd, Mditi, Mallik, Mandal, Mdnji>
Mdnnd, Mete, Naskar, Pare, Patndik, Pdtra, Pradhdm
Rojd, Sarkdr, Sen, Sdntrd, Sasmal.

In Oritsa— Behard, Bhuid, Daldi, Dds, Malhd, Mdtidl, Ndlk,
Sdhu.

Sub-castes.

In Murshedabad —

Panchsata Bahdttarghar.
Chauddapdrd Rdrhibindus.
Rarhi.

Bdgri.

Barendra.

Dakshini.

Sections.

Alddasi.

Almisi.

Alamydn.

Kdsyapa.

Majlisi (Maudgalya).

Digitized by ^.oosle

KAIBABTTA.

Sab- castes.

Sections.

In Midnapur —
Hele-Kaibartta

In Hugkli —

Uttar-RArhi.

Dakshin-RArhi. ( LAI-ChAtAi. AlmAI.

j Ekside. KAstu-Rishi.
j Doside. KAsyapa.

V MAkunda. Madhukulya.

SAndilya,

VyAs.

r Uttar-RArhi.

3 Dakhin-RArhi or Marwar.

4 Tutiya.

I Jeliya, MAIA or JaliyA.

In Jetsore —

MAIo or MAIA.

RAjbansi.

Mecho

Helo

^ Hypergamous.

Amrita-RAsi.

KAsyap-RAsi.

Mesh-RAsi.

Padma-RAsi.

In 24-Pargands—

Kaibartta.

DAs.

In Central Bengal —

ChAsA or HalwAha Kaibartta.
TutiyA Kaibartta.

In Maldah —

J HAlik.

I JAlik.

In Noakhali —

( BhuluAi.
Sundipe.
KaralAi.
DAntrAi.
PAtuA.
Phirti.

KAsyapa.

In Dacca—

^As. Jalwah Kaibartta.

In Bakarganj—

HAliA DAs, ParAsar DAs,
or ChAsi Kaibartta.

KAIA RAy
HAliA BAlAi
JAdab RAy
Bhuban Kuri
MAnji
SamaddAr
CharmanAi RAy
MajumdAr BAngAl

AlamyAn.
BharadvAj.
Ghrita Kausik.
KAsyap.
ParAsar.

Digitized by LjOOQle

KAIBAETTA.

In Bakarganj—

Sab-castes.

Kaibartta, Chandradwip.

Bara-Hazari.

In Oritta —

Orh.

Rarhi.

In Bthar—
dethaut.
Garbetd.
Desi.
Semari.
Bangdli.

Jtaltodr.

Titles:— Abkdr, Bhakat, Bhatthiddr, Chaudhri, Golddr,
Lila, Modi, Sdhu.

Sab-castes. Sections of the Banodhia and

Jaisw&r sab-castes.

Banodhid.

Arddhdlakhid.

Kumharid.

Biydhut orBhojpuri.

Bachhraidn.

Lakhnaud.

Deswdr.

Baniyd.

Mahdtmd.

daiswdr or Ajodhid-

Bardarhd.

Maurhid.

bdsi.

Barpaserd.

Modi.

Jasdr.

Behndhdn.

Motrihd.

Khdlsd.

Bhaiskaydri.

Nagarid.

Khariddhd.

Chaildha.

Nikthd.

Rdnki or Kaldl

Chamraulid.

Rdmi dhdmi ke

(Mahomedan).

Chaubhaid.

asdmi.

Chaurahd.

Rdmpurid.

Dewdn ke asdmi.

Saddbarti.

Gadahid.

Senpurid.

Gaudanhd.

Seth.

Ghorcharhd.

Sidrahd.

Harchanpurid.

Srimaurhd.

Hosainpurid.

Thdther.

Karaidchor.

Thorelid.

Khalrihd.

Trilokpurid.

Sections.

Kdwdr
Mandat

Manjhi ^Hypergamoas.
Pdthar
Sikddr
Bdngdl.

Dhamdi.

Khaunid.

Ghani.

Gundi.

Nidli.

Digitized by {jOOQie

•66

KALWAB.

Sections of the Biyahut and Kharidalia sub-castes.

.A.

Abkahili.

Ami.

Bakat pin re ke
pinre.

Baksarii.

Banirasii.

Banrihi.

Biriha ke Mihto.
Barharii ke pin re.
Baruir.

Bisundir.

Bathuike Mihto.
Bathuike Riut.
Battisi.

Beruke kisin.
Beruke Mihto.
Beruke pinre.
Bhidwarii.
Bhojpurii.

Bhutine.

Bihii.

Chinre ke raut.
Chaug&in.
Chaugiinke pin re.
Chausi.

Datta ke riut.

Daulti ke riut.
Dhikiich.
Dhankhirii.
Dhobihi.

Dhurfandi.

Ekauni.

Gidheyii.

Gimel.

Gingdahii.

Gareyii.

Gharikirak.

Goi.

Gonr.

Hardwir.

Harnitar.

Haziri pinre.
dagmanri.
Jaintpur.
oamuion.

Kaithar.

Kilinui.

Kamalsar.

Kimsar ke Mihto.
Kindh pikar.
Kaneil.

Kante ke rakmal.
Kante ke ras.
Karjihi.

Kasarbini.

Kasmal.

Kates.

Kateswar.

Katharii.

Katheri.

Katsarwi.

Khan.

Khiprihi.
Kharknike ke raut.
Khataii.

Khereswarke pinre.
Krishin.

Laksham Serii.

Lakshneswar.

Lamgarii.

Mihari.

Mahuiri.

Mijhauri.

Mallik.

Manerii.

Mingaf.

Masire ke raut.
Mujnii.

Mulmahili.

Nalakhii.

N union.

Nuneswar.

N unhar.
Nunkharii.

Osii.

Otonii.

Pibai ke kisan.

Pichhnarii.

Pailihi.

Pinihi chaur.
Pinkharayi.

Pinre ke Pinre.

Panthpikar.

Pariharbiri.

Parlak Pinre.
Prisi.

Rimkisin.

Rangpiir.

Sahadar.

Sihil.

Sihan.

Sanhi.

Sanichri.

Sirgitii.

Sohanpur.

Sonikint.

Sonhar.

Sugardhar.

Surjihi.

Tabkihila.

Timgiin.

Tirtar ke khir puri.
Urdigiinhi.

Lohar (Behar),

Kumar, Karmakar (Bengal),
Bhindhini (Singbhum).

Titles: — In Bengal — Ari, Dis, De, Tewiri : in Behar — Karuni,

Mistri, Thikur.

Sub-castes. Sections.

In Bardwan — In Behar —

Belisi.

Mihmudpurii.

Kimli-Kimar.

Bathuait.

Darsurii.

Garbarii.

Digitized by {jOOQie

KAMAB.

Sub-castes. Sections.

In Midnapur — In Behar — conoid.

Loh&r-K&mcir ") These two inter- Godhanpur&.

Pitule-K£m£r J marry. HarsariS.

Kinsari. HasanpuriS.

Sarna-Kamdr.

Ghatra-Kamar.

Chand-K&mar.

Dhokrd.

TSmr<i.

In 24-Parganaa—

Uttar-R&rhi.

Dakhin-Rarhi.

Anarpuri.

In Eastern Bengal —

Bhusn&pati.

Dhakai.

PaschimS.

In Murahedabad—

Rdrhi.

Barendra.

Dhakawcil.

Khott£.

In. Pabna —

R4rhi or D&s-Sam&j.
Barendra or Panch-Sameij.

In Noakfiali —

J&ti-Karmak&r.

Sh i kh u-Karmak&r.

In Manhhum —

Magahiyd.

Dhokr£.

Lohs4.

B&sun4.

In Santdl Pargania —

Ashtalai.

Belalai.

Chur&lai.

Sankhalal.

Jakhalpuri&.

darangait.

Jasi&m.

Kalait.

Katosid.

Marturid.

Pokharmi&.

Ratwari&.

S4gi.

Sonpurifi.

Sothiw&r.

In Bengal —

Alamycin.

Bharadw&j.

K&syapa.

Maudgalya.

S&ndilya.

In Singbhum and the Santdl
Parganda —

Alam-rishi.

B&gh-rishi.

Bdmunici.

KachhuS.

KhujiriS.

Manjari.

NSg.

Netrii.

Pot£.

Puralid.

Digitized by LjOOQLe

Kit Ml.

Kamia.

Sections.

Bar&ili.

Lohagun.

Darnel.

Lohar.

Dev^pithi.

Lokandri.

Diali.

Mangrati.

Dudhrdj.

Parbat6.

Dur&l.

Pokhrel.

Gadaili.

Portel.

Gadal.

Rahapai.

Gahatraj.

Ramudan.

Gajm4r.

Rasaili.

Gham-ghotia.

Rijai.

Gharti-ghaur6.

Rujal.

Ghatam.

sapkota.

Jar- Kami.

Sasankhar.

Kairaia.

Setu-Suruai

Kati-chior4.

Sin-chiori.

Kharkabiyu.

Singa~or4.

Khati.

Thapangi.

Lamgad6.

Tirua.

JliUluh, Kami, Kondh , K/iond, Kui-loka, Kui-cnju, Skandhamra.

Titles Abbaye, Desauri, Jhankai or Jani, M&ji, Mfilik, Mutha.

Sub-castes.

Malua or Arria
Kandh.

Orh or Uriya
Kandh.

Beniah-Kandh.

Betiah-Kandh.

Nikitia-Kandh.

Sauntia-Kandh.

Ooehi or septs.

1. Besringia

2. Bhetumendi.

8. Rasimendi.

4. Sagormendi.

5. Bankamendi.

6. Bidumendi.

7. Baloskuppa.

8. Grandimendi.

9. Gumalmendi.

10. Dutimendi.

11. Sandumendi.

Klambu or snb-septs.
' 1. Besera.

2. Masara.

3. Boboto.

4. Binjarra.
j 5. Suna.

\ 6. Motaro.

7. Mallika.

8. Murkuri.

9. Moku.

^10. Dokeri.

Digitized by ^.oosle

KANDH.

Sub-castes.

Oochi or septs.

12. Tuniamendi.

13. Bhetimendi.

14. Sidupari.

15. Delapari.

16. Kaliapari.

17. Rakodmoska.

18. Pundilkia.

19. Bogalkia.

20. Teridikia.

21. Koskirabi.

22. Domsing.

23. Kalabag.

24. Kutrengia

25. Jehilingia.

26. Petingia.

27. Kerlingia.

28. Bakolmendi.

29. Dopsingia.

30. Sehelengia.

31. Dangnikia.

32. Adgirkia

33. Lotpongia.

34. Danikia.

35. Robingia.

36. Mutungia.

37. Ganingia.

38. Behingia.

39. Dubosingia.

40. Dondikia.

41. Bhusangia.

42. Koinjabari.

43. Suramendi.

44. Bhursamendi.

45. Pooingia.

46. Gopingia.

47. Saitingia.

48. Pheringia.

49. Jorapongia.

50. Bobdengia.

Klambu or sub-septs.

'1. Kotringa.

2. Bisunga.

3. Damlunga.

4. Somanga.
.5. Mongalka.

fl. Koskigan.

I 2. Panjurika.

I 3. Surumanega.
< 4. Pandega.

5. Sarenga.

| 6. Neringa.

17. Damanga.

Digitized by

Google

KANDU.

JtAltint, Ram, Bkarbhunjd, Bhunja, Bhujari, Bhurji.
Title : — SAhu.

Sections of

Sub-castes.

the Madhesid

the Magaliiyd

sub-caste.

t —

MadhesiA.

BaniApAthar.

AkAn.

KhAdhnu.

MagahiyA.

BijaibanAras.

AkhgAon.

Kokras.

BantariA or

DhanutA.

Ankuri.

Mahuli.

BharbhunjA.

HAthsukhA.

ArAp.

MAIdhiA.

KanaujiA.

KotA.

BAghAkol.

Maner.

Gonr.

Pachtar.

Barhi.

MAsaur.

KorAnch.

Sribitia.

Be re.

Mehaus.

DhuriA.

BhArath.

Murti.

RawAni.

BhAter.

Nenijor.

BallamtiriA.

Bireri.

NeprA.

Thither or

Chhitni.

PAIi.

ThatherA.

DatiyAn.

ParsautiA.

GAger.

Pilich.

GAnrol.

RAjgiri.

HAthiAkAn.

RauniA.

IchbariA.

SarAihAt.

JiArwAr.

Saursam-

KAnAp.

bAr.

KAneil.

SirA.

KAriAn.

Tisor.

KAsiam.

Toril.

KAteAr.

UttardAhA.

Sections of the
BantariA sub-oaste.

{ Tindiha.
ChaudihA.

Sections of the
KorAnch sub-oaste.

ChAsi.

Dehri.
HAthiA Kan-
dhA.
KoriAr.
MuthA.

$ap£ti.

Titles: — Bhuiya, Rai, HAIdAr, MAIA, Mandal, MAnjhi,
Mutabar (headman of panchayat), ShikdAr.

Sub-caste. Sections.

Nil. KAsyapa.

Siva.

Digitized by ^.oosle

KABAN.

llaratT, Ratki-Kdet, Vriyd-Rdet.

Titles: — DAs, Mahanti, MahApAtra.

Sub- castes.

Karan, Nauli-Karan.
Srishti-Karan, Bhatuntara.

Hypergamous groups.

KharA.

PurA.

ChaiAn.

Kulina.

Sections.

Atreya.

BharadwAja.

Kantsasa.

KAsyapa.

Mudgul.

NAgAsa.

ParAsara.

Sankha.

Itarangtf, mum.

Titles Bishoi, Dalui, Kaur, KhAn.

Sub-castes. Sections.

DhaluA. SAImAch.

MAluA. Kachchhap.

SikhariA.

TungA.

^.AStra, Ranserd, Tamherd, Thatherd.

Sub-caste, Sections.

None . 1 BanaudhiyA.

BasaiyA.

ChauarsA.

ChaugharA.

Hariharno.

Lakar-MahauliyA.

MachhuA.

MahauliyA.

MauhariyA.

SuariyA.

Suppar.

1 Mr. Sherring enumerates seven sub-castes — PurbiyA, PachhawAn,
Gorakhpuri, Tank TAnchara, Bhariya, Golar — none of which appear to be
known m Behar.

Digitized by LjOOQle

XXSTHA.

Jiistha.

5ib oitrii Sections.

Madhyasreni-K&yastha. Same as oi Kayasths.

Kastha.

Jiaur.

Sab-tribes.

Ch&nti.

Cherwa.

Dudh-Kaur.

Paikard.

Rathiya.

Septs.

Bambai» a kind oi eel.

Banjar.

Bhainsa, buffalo.

Chalenga, a kind of vegetable.
Kariar.

Kolkat&ri.

Motiom&n.

Pakar, a fruit.

Pharsddhenti.

Rankankar.

Sanw&ni.

Sarj&l.

Singar.

liatoSli.

Titles :-!-Dhdli, H4!d&r, M&la, M&njhi, Vidy&dhara.

Sab-caste. Section.

A t » 7. Aliman.

f&tjasth, Kdet, Laid.

Titles : — Dds, L&l, Rdi, Singh.

SulHsutes.

Aith&na.

Amashta.

Balmik.

Bhatnagar.

Gaur.

Karan.

Kulsreshta.

Mdthur.

Nigam.

Saksena.

8ribi S .al,{^™-

Surajdhwaj.

In general

Sections.
'K^syapa.
Dedngawe.
Kabledr.
Katariy&r.
Kathdutiir.
Lakhauriar.
...< Nandkiridr.
Narhatidr.
Nimandih.
Nuniy&r.
Samaiir.
Saraiydr.
_Sonknare.

Digitized by LjOOQle

KAYASTH,

Sub-castes.

Sections.

Of the Amashta
Bub-oaate.

'BaidsAin.
Bard iAr.
BilwAr.
BirnAwar.
DatkiliAr.
DharkiliAr.
Gaprai.
GyAsAin.
Hargambai.
< daipuria.
damuAr.
Kachgawai.
Karpatne.
Mahtha.
MandilwAr.
Pansain.
RukhiAr.
SandhawAr.
_TinriAr.

Of the Karan
sub-caste.

rAjaidApAI.

AmbahlA.

Atari.

BadisAmA.

BakholA.

BalAin.

Barhari.

BattikbAI.

Benk.

Garb bi war.
s' Ikahan.
KachhrA.
KAnchanpur.
KothipAI.
Munga.
Narangbali.
Oari.

Pakli.

Sisab.

Usauth.

w Utamapur.

Of the Srib&etab J
sub-caste. ]

'KAsyapa.

Akhauri.

Bakshi.

Misir.

PAnde.

RAi.

Sahuliar.

Singh.

TewAri.

ThAkur.

Digitized by

Google

KAYASTHA.

Edet, Eait, Kdyath.

Sub-castes.

Sections.

Uttar-Rdrhi.

Agnibesya.

Kalvisa.

Dakshin-Rdrhi.

Alambydn.

Kdsyapa.

Bangaja.

Ari.

Kausika.

Barendra.

Atreya.

Krishndtreya.

Madhya-sreni.

Baiydgrahapadya.

Kusik.

Basishtha.

Maudgalya.

Bdsuki.

Pardsara.

Bdtsya.

Rohita.

Bharadwdja.

Sdbarna.

Biswdmitra.

Sdndilya.

Gautama.

Saukdlin.

Ghritakausik.

Saupdyan.

ddmadagnya.

Titles arranged in Hypergamous Groups.

Dakshin Rdrhi.

Kulin. — Basu, Ghosh, Mitra.

Siddha Maulik. — Dds, Datta, De, Guha, Kar, Pdlit, Sen,
Sinha.

Sadhya-Maulik or Bahatture.— Aditya, Aich, Ankur, Arnab,
As, Baittash, Bal, Ban, Bandhur, Barddhan,
Barmi, Bhadra, Bhanja, Bhui, Bhut, Bid,
Bindu, Bishnu, Brahma, Chandra, Ddhd,
Ddnd, Dhanu, Dhar, Dharani, Gan, Ganda,
Ghar, Guha, Gui, Guna, Gupta, Guta, Hem,
Hes, Hor, Hui, Indra, uas, Khil, Kirtti,
Kshdm, Kshem, Ksh om, Kurtda, Lodh, Mana,
Ndg, Nandi, Ndth, Om, Pdl, Pi I, Rdhd,
Rdhut, Rdja.Rakshit, Rdnd, Ranga, Rudra,
Sdin, Sakti, Sal, Sdm, Sand, Sarmd, Sil,
Som, Sur, Swar, Tej, Upamdn.

Bangaja.

Kulvn. — Basu, Ghosh, Guha, Mitra.

31 ad hy ah/a. — Datta, Ndg, Nath.

Mahdpatra.— Adhya, Ankur, Bhadra, Bishnu, Chandra, Dds,
Deb, Dhar, Kar, Kundu, Nandan, Nandi,
Pdl, Pdlit, Rdhd, Rakshit, Sen, Sinha,
Som.

Digitized by LjOOQle

KAYASTHA.

Abasakti, Aditya, Aich, Apa, Arnab, Baitosh, Bal,
Bdn, Bandhu, Barddhan, Barmd, Bed, Bhanja,
Bhuin, Bhumik, Bhut, Bindu, Brahma,: Chain,
Chaki, Ddhd, 05m, Ddnd, Ddnri, Dhanu, Dha-
rani, Dhol, Phum, Dut, Gan, Gandak, Ghanid,
Ghdr, Guna, Gijpta, Hdthi, Hem, Hes, Horn,
Hor, Hui, Indra, das, Kachu, Kardiyd, Kbit,
Kirtti, Kshdm, Kshem, Kshom, Lcdh, Maguri,
Mdn, Mana, Ndd, Ndhd, Nalu, Pai, Pil, Pipi,
Puin, Rdhut, Rdja, Rdnd, Ranga, Riti, Roi,
Rudra, Sdin, Sanga, Sarmd, Si I, Smdr, Son,
Suman, Sur, Sydm, Tej.

Uttar-Rdrhi.

Kulin.— Ghosh, Sinha.

Sanmavlik. — Das, Datta, Mitra.

Sdmdnya Maulik. — Dds, 1 Ghosh, Kar,’ Sinha.

Bdrendra.*

Siddha.— Chdki, 05s, Nandi.

Sddhya. — Datta, Deb, N5g, Sinha.

-He/'.— Ddm, Dhar, Gun, Kar.

Honorary titles:— Bakshi, Bh5nd5ri, Biswds, Chaudhri,
Dast5-d5r, Dh5li, Kdnungo, Mahalla-
navis, Maiumddr, Mallik, Munsif,
Mushrif, Mustaufi, Neogi, Pattaddr,
R5i, Sarkdr, jShikddr, Thdkurta.

1 These two families are considered a quarter each, so the Uttar-BArhia
reckon 7 \ out of 9 families.

8 Originally the Barendras had seven families, but now they count 7J
by adding the descendants of one SaramA, a JSdpit, as a half family, besides
many immigrant families from other parts of the country which go to swell the
Hej group.

ILetoat, Kiot, Kaibartta.

Titles:— 7» Bhanddri, Chdudhri, Deraddr, Jdnddr

Kdmat, Kdpar, Khawds, Mahto, Mandar, Marar. ’

Sub-castes. Sections.

In Behar —

Bahidwak, Bahiot, or Ghibihdr. Bhadaurid.

Garbhdit, Gorwdit, or Sdghdr. Biswds.

Ajudhidbdsi. Hdzard.

dathot. Itwdr.

Machhud. Kdpar.

Mahddanda. Kasyapa.

Maharnd.

Marar.

Mukhid.

Digitized by {jOOQie

KHAMBU.

flhambu, Nau-ldkh Khambu.

Titles Dhan, dimddr, Kirdti, Mandal, Mukhid, Rdi, Sing.

Than or septs.

Bdbhaunchhd.

Bdngdel.

Bari os.

Bokhime.

Bonthdrua.

Boyong.

Bumdkdmchhd.

Butepdchhd.

Chamlingeh.

Chaurdsi.

Chuirdchhd.

Dilpdli.

Dungmdli.

Haidibuthd.

Hatuwdli.

Homodimchhd.

Horongpdchhd.

Jubhingeh.

Kdsi.

Klidling.

Kheresanchhd.

Kudsanchhd.

Kulung.

Ldphaunchhd.

Maiduchhd.

Maikam.

Male Kumchhd.

Maydhdng.

Mulcdranchhd.

Mulukuas.

Ndmbochhd.

Ndmdung.

Nardauchhd.

Nechdhli.

Nimdmbaunchhd.

Ninauchhd.

Nomahang.

Paderdchhd.

Phlumdchhd.

Phulehli.

Phurkeli.

Plembochhd.

Rabchhdli.

Rajabin.

Rdkhdli.

Rdnauchhd.

Rdpungchhd.

Regdlaunchhd.

Rimching.

Rochingdchhd

Sdngpdng.

Silongchhd.

Sotfidngeh.

Sungdele.

Tdngbudh.

Thulung.

Wdhsali.

Khandait-Piik, Khand&yat, Bkuiyi-Pdik.

Titles :

In Chota Nagpur Amdut, Arhd, Bardik, Behard, Gaunjhu,
Kotwdr, Mahdpdtra, Mdnjhi, Mirddhd, Ndik, Ohddr, Pdtra,
Pradhdn, Rdut.

In Orissa.

Bdghdi tiger.

Bdhubalendra, like tlie god Indra
in strength of arm.

Dakhin-Kabdt, south gate.

Daubdrik, messenger or Bentinel.

Garh-Ndik or Sinha, leader or
lion of the fort.

Hdti, elephant.

dend.

Maharath or Mahdrathi, great
charioteer.

Malla, wrestlers.

Mangardj.

Ndik, leader.

Paschim-Kabdt, west gate.
Prahardj.

Ranasinha or Samar-
sinha, lion of the fight.
Raut, horseman.

Rui.

Sdmanta, officer.

Sendpati, geueral.

Sinha, Hod.

Uttar-Kabdt, north gate.

Digitized by

Google

Bar-gohri.

EH AMD AIT.

Sub-castes.

Sections.

fDas-gharid, in Saranda of Singbhum.
j Pachas-gharia, in Ghota Nagpur.

<( Pdnchsau-gharia, in Gdngpur.

| Pandrasau-gharid, in Gdngpur, Bonai,

^ Bdmrd, and Sambalpur.

Chhot-gohri, in Ohota Nagpur.

Totemietic—

Kachhud, tortoise.
Kadam, nauclea
grandifolia.

Mor, peacock.
Ndg, snake.

Sdl, fish.

(4) Eponymous—

Bharadwdja.
Kaundilya.
Ndgasd, eto.

Chdsd or Orh-Khandait — „ ,

Mahdndik or Sresta-Khandait J ln Balasore 1014 Cuttack.
Bhanja-Khandait —It t> •

Harichandan Khandait ...j AnJ ^ un *

Khandait-Paik ... ) , ~ . _ ., .

Sresta-Khandait ... J In the OnssaTnbutaryStates.

lUtarfct

Titles : — Dhdngar, Kisdn, Kol, Parja.

Sub-castes.

Sections.

Berga-Kharid.

Dhilki-Kharia.

Dud-Kharid.

Erenga-Kharid.

Munda-Kharia.

Oraon-Kharia.

Bage, a bird.

Bar, Ficus lndica.

Bdrld.

Barod, an animal.

Bilung, Nun, or Nond Mai Id,
salt.

Demtd, red ant.

Dhdn, paddy.

Dhanudr, can’t eat rice soup.
Dhelki, a bird.

Dungdung, Aind, or Indu, eel.
Durang, a fish.

Hdthi, elephant.

Kas>i.

Kerketd, a bird of that name.
Kiro or Bdgh, tiger.

Kulu or Kachchhud, tortoise.
Mailwar.

Murgear.

Digitized by {jOOQie

KHARIA.

Sub-castes.

Sections.

N&g, oobra.

Naik.

Nani&r.

Pardhan.

Pathal.

Purti.

S&hul.

Samd'id.

Saur, fish.

Suranid, a rock.

Telga.

Teteteyin or Bagiir, a bird
that name.

Tirko&r.

Tititihu, a bird.

T opo, a bird.

Tuti, vegetable.

The above groups are found among the settled Kharids. I
have been unable to asoertain whether the wild Kharias, com-
monly known as Ban-M&nush, * men of the woods, have any similar
divisions.

SUuirto&r, Khencar.

Titles :

— Bhakat, Bhogta, Das, Gaunju, Kapri, Mahto, Mandar,
Manjhi, Ohddr, Panjidri, Pradhdn.

8ub-tribes.

In Palamau —
Pdtbandh.
Daulbandh.
Khairi.

In Southern Lohardaga —
Deswdri-Kharwar.
Bhogta.

Raut.

Manjhii.

Septs.

Aind, a kind of eel.

Bdg, tiger.

Bahera, a jungle fruit.
Baherwar, a tree.

Bail, a fruit.

Bair, plum.

Bamnia, salt.

Bandhia.

Bania, a caste.

Bar, Ficus Indica.

Bhogta.

Binjoar.

Biserwar.

Bisra, a hawk.

Chardiar, pineapple.

Chirra, squirrel.

Chorant, a grass.

Chundiar, a top-knot.
Chuniar, lime.

Demta, red tree-ant.

Dhobi, can’t touch washerman.

Digitized by ^.oosle

KHARWAR.
Sub- tribes.

Septs.

Dolbandhi.

Dudul, a kind of bird.

Gai, cow.

Ghansi, a pond fish.

Hans, swan.

Hansarwar, duok.

Hasdajii, a duck.

Hathi, elephant.

Hemremina.

Kachua, tortoise.

Kans, a grass.

Kanwad, a jungle fruit.
Karhar, a jungle fruit like ‘bel.
Kerketa, a bird.

Kesargia.

Khapu, a bird.

Khichengia, a fruit.

Kowriar.

Kuardar.

Kurdur.

Kussum, a fruit.

Maderwar.

Mahukal, a bird.

Mailwar.

Manjar.

Manjhi, a title.

Munga, coral.

Murgi, hen.

Murmurwar.

Mus, rat.

Nig, cobra.

Pitmurmuriri.

Radhar.

Rikhiasan.

Sai Sonarwar.

Samudwar.

Saras, a water-fowl.

Sheor, a fish.

Sonar, goldsmith.

Sonarwar, gold.

Suia, a kind of little bird.
Sumedhiar, a tree.

Surunia, neck ornament.

T amba, copper.

Tirki, a bird.

Tiruar, Tirkuir, an arrow.

T uduar, hen.

T unduar.

T uruar, a fruit ( pakur ).

Tuti, a kind of bird.

Uriar.

Digitized by

Google

KHABWAB.

Sub-tribes.

Septs

rBehrodr.

I Kaunsidr.
of the I Kauridr.

Daulbandh< Mdnridr.

eub-tribe.

Pdt-murmu.

Rdj-murmu.

Sonorodr.

gthatih.

Sub-castes.

Khatik.

Dharamdasi.

Section.

Kdsyapa.

JUliltti, Purbiya Khutri.

Titles Barman, Ldl, Mdhdtd, Sdhu.

Sub- castes.

Chdrjdti.

Panchj&ti.

Chhaj&ti.

B&raj&ti.

Bah&nnaj&ti.

Piruwal.

Of the Chdij&ti sub-
caste.

Of the Panohjdti sab-
caste.

Of the Chhajdti sub-
caste.

Of the Bdrajdti sub-
casta

Sections.

K&pur.

( Khann&.

MeherS.

Set or Set-t&lw&r.

Beri.

Birj.

Saiga I.

Sarw&l.

( Wahe.

I Bhale.

Dhawan.

Supat.

Tolwar.

T urman.

I Chaupre.

Ghai.

Kakkar.

Meheden.

Soni.

Tandan.

1 The Charjati sub-caste is again divided into Arh&i-ghar and Ch&ri-ghar,
apparently hvpergamous groups, the former of which is deemed superior to
the latter. It seems probable that the first five sub-castes were originally
hypergamous divisions, the order of precedence being that given above. Inter-
marriage between members of different sub-castes is not unknown at the
present day, but it is considered right for a man to marry in his own group,
and the sub-castes are practically endogamous. The Piruwal sub-caste has
always been endogamous for the reasons explained in the text.

Digitized by LjOOQle

XHATBI.

Sub-castes.

Sections.

Of the Bahannajati
sub-oaste.

Behai.

Chal-agge.

Dhandhabe.

Gayalpure.

Handi.

Keoli.

Khosle.

Kuchal.

Marw&he.

NSter.

Ndndi.

Suri.

Brahmanical Qotras —

Angirasa.

B&tsya.

Bharadw&ja.

Hangsarishi.

K&syapa.

Kausalya.

Lomask.

Title : — Mandar.

Sub-castes.

Bahio.

Goro.

Section.

K&syapa.

or |tolita.

Sub-castes.

mi.

Sections.

Aladish.

Alamy&n.

Agni batsya.
Kans&ri.
Kasyapa. .
Kauchan rishi.
Madhukulya.
M tigrish.

Digitized by ^.oosle

KOCHH.

fiochh, Rdjbaim, Sivabanti , Suryabanti , Mandii , Bhanga-Kshatri ,
Kshatri-Sankoch, ralita-Kshatn, Paliya , Desi.

Titles:— Bhaumik, Chaudhrl, Dds, Mahat, Mdjhi, Tdnti,
Bdns-drd, Sagun-ure.

Sub-castes. Sections.

In Northern Bengal —
Pal i yd.

Sddhu.

Bdbu, Bydbahdri.
Rdjbansi.

Kdntdi.

Desi.

Tiar or Dalai.
Moddsf.
Dobhdsir.
ddlud or dhdlud.
Bodo.

In Dacca —

Kochh-Mdnddl.

Kdsyapd.

Dugu or Seotions.

Mekhun. Darang-Chiachi.
Ddsik. Darang-Saudana.
Senel. Darang-Dambuk.
Chisim. Darang-Dakal.
Ndphdk. Shaini.

Darang. Doi.

Richil. Durgu.

Parak. Lori.

llom, Murdo.

Titles: — Mahto, Murdo (green-grooer), Marar,
Dhelphor (clod-breaker).

Sub-castes.

Seotions of the Bandphar sub-caste.

Barki-Ddngi.
Chhotki-Dangi.
Bandphar, Banapdr.
Jaruhdr.

Kanaujid.

Magahiyd.

Tirhutia.

Chirmait.

Kumdrd.

Goita
Dhdr
Reutid
Paurid
Bardkar
Palmohd

In Champaran.

In Chota Nagpur.

Bagwe.

Darbe.

Kdno.

Kdpri.

Mdnjhi.

Mardr.

Marik.

Panjidrd.

Digitized by LjOOQle

KOIBI,

Sub- castes. Sections of the Magahiy& sub-caste.

Amrot.

Gamaiyd Pargand Kharakpur.
Kargaha.

Maiketdri begund bdgh.

Mdf.

Sais.

( Kdsyap.

In Chota Nagpur < Ndg.

( Mujni.

2br$, Kaori t Khaira, Kkayrd, Edri (used inaoourately by
outsiders only).

Sub-castos.

Dhalo.

Molo.

Sikharid.

Bdddmid.

Sondrekhd.

Jhetid.

Guri-Bdwd.

Titles: — Mudi, Rdi.

Sections.

Alu.

Bdrdd.

Butku, pig.

Hansda, wild goose.
Kdsyab, tortoise.
Kdsibak, heron.
Sdmd.

Sdl or Sauld, fish.
Sdnpu, bull.

llorlM.

Sub-tribes.

Agaria-Korwa.
Dand-Korwa.
Dih Korwa.
Paharia-Korwa.

Title:— Majhi.

Septs.

Ainduar, a kind of eel.

Amba, mango.

Asotoar.

Bagher, tiger.

Dhan, unhusked rice.

Ginmuar.

Ginuar, a kind of eel.

Har, plough.

Harra, myrabolam.

Hasda, wild goose.

Huruj.

Kerketta, a bird.

Mujaniar.

Muri, onoestors made a cb.it Id of
four skulls and oooked their
dinner.

Pakhua.

Samat, pestle.

Samp, snake.

Sarai, a jungle fruit.

Silli, a kind of fish.

Suga, parrot.

6 a

Digitized by ^.oosle

MAhdni.

Title D£s.

KOSHTA-

Sections.
Bagh&l, tiger.
Bagutia.

Bhit, rioe.

Bhatp&h&ri.

Chaudhri.

Chaur, yak’s tail.
Gobi.

Khanda, sword.
Kurm, tortoise.
Mdnik, gem.
N&g, snake.

Son.

3&0141, KoUril.

Title : — Pradhdn.

Sab-castes. Sections.

Atpdrd. Nil.

Dhukursdni.

Kutabpur.

Manoharsdhi.

flniuMr, Kumar, Kumati, Kumbhakdr, KulAl, Ghatalar,
Ghatukdrpur, Prajapati , Rudrahans, Rudrapdl, Pandit.

Titles Beh4r&, Biswis, D&s, Deuri, Kunkdl, M&hato,
M&jhi, Marar, Marik, Mehr&na, Pfil, Rdn&.

Sub-castes.

Sections.

In Je88ore—

Belg&chi.

Aladoshi.

Dasp&ra.

Alamy4n.

Nautana.

Hansa.

Bhushna.

Kanaka.

K4syapa.

Rishi.

Tn Murshedabad and Hughli—
R&rhi.

B&rendra,

D^spari.

Chaur&si.

S&ndilya.

Digitized by LjOOQle

JLUMHAB.

Sub-castes.
In Pabna—

Sirasthdn.

Mdjhasthan.

Chandan-sdra.

Chaurdsi.

Daspdra

Prdmdnik.

Pdnpdtra.

Mujgarni.

In Dacca —

Bara-bhdgiya JLdl.
Chhota-bhagiyd j 6ddd.
Khatya.

Rdjmahdlia.

Magi.

In Noakhali —

Section*.

Bhulaiya.

Saralia.

Chatgdinyd.

Sandwipa.

In Behar and Chota Nagpur—

Maghaiyd.

Asmait.

Kanaujia.

Baid.

Tirhutia.

Bdrik.

Desi, Deswar.

Biswds.

Bardhia.

Chaudhridn.

Bidhut.

Gdim.

Ajodhyabdsi.

Jeruhet.

Ardhauti.

Kdpar.

Godahiyd.

Kdsyapa, Kaisab.

Chapud.

Kathalmalet.

Banaudhid.

Kheri.

Masawar.

Madhust.

Bangali orRdrhi.

Of the Magahiyd

Mahdthd.

Turk-Kumhdr.

eub-oaste. <

, Mahdtman.
Maheswar.
Mehtar.
Mukh.

Ndg.

Pachmait.

Panjidr.

Parrarit.

Pharkiet.

Rdut.

Rdworh.

Sendpat.

Sonmain.

Tharait.

Digitized by {jOOQie

KCMHAB.

Sub*ea»tes.

Sections.

In Orissa —

Sections found
Singbhum.

^Ch6na.

Kharui.

Maher.

Mandap.

I Natanya.
' Ranub&d.
Sik&ri.
Sinhi.
Surabani.
JTumali&.

In Manbbum

In Lobardagd

rBiilhor.

I Kdsyab.

<? Min, fish.

I N&g, snake.

I Sdndil.

rBar, Ficus Indica.

Garhatia.

| Hathi, elephant.

J Kansi, a grass.

I Parihar.

I Sisingi, a river-fish, has
| two thorns on its head.
LTumbli, Berni.

In the Sant&l f K&chim, tortoise.
Parganfis. (. N&g, serpent.

dagann&thi or Uriya-Kumh&r. Bhad-bhadrid, sparrow.

Goru, cow.

Kaundinya, tiger.
Kurma, tortoise.

Mudir, frog.

Neul, weasel.

Sarpa, snake.

Khatya-Kumhir. Kdsyapa.

fUtHW, Kmbi, Kurambi, Kurum , Kurum&nik.

Titles: — Chaudhri, Mahanta, Mah&r&i, Mahato, Mandai, Mar&r,
Mukhya, Par£m&nik, Raut, Sark&r, Singh.

Sub-castes.

(a) In Behar —

Ayodhiy& or Awadhiy4.
Chandel or Chandan.
Chanaur.

Ghamela.

GhorcharhS.

Sections.

(a) In Behar —

Garain.

K&syapa.

Digitized by ^.oosle

KUBMI.

Sub-castes.

Sections.

(a) In Behar— conoid. (ft) In Chota Nagpur and Orissa —

Jaiswdr.

Kachaisd.

Katridr.

Kharchwdr.

Rdmaiyd.

Sainthwdr.

Sanswdr.

Sauchand.

Tefahgharid

(6) In Chota Nagpur — •

Adh-Kurmi or Madhyam-
Kurmi.

Bagsarid or Bdgsarid.
Khorid.

Kurum.

Magahid.

Nich-Kurmi.

Sikharid or Chhota-
Kurmi.

Bagsari.

Gdddsari.

Gaysari.

Maisdsari.

Andhachdbdr.

Andhachipd panaris.
Bdghbanudr, tiger.

Bdghwdr, tiger.

Bagsarid, tiger.

Baherwdr, a fruit.

Bans, bamboo.

Bdnsridr, will not play the
ban si or bamboo flute.
Banudr, hunter.

Bendidr.

Bhokwdr.

Bildr, eat.

Chhonch Mutrudr, spider. 1
Chilbindhd panarid.
Chilbinudr, kite.

Chiludr, kite.

Chorharud.

Dugridr.

Dumurid, dutnur, fig.

Goridr.

Hdnsdd.

Hdsdagid, wild goose.
Hastowdr, tortoise.
Hemramid, betel palm.
Hendudr.

Homwdr.
ddlbanudr, net.

Jhdpdbasriar.

dhdtidekd.

Jurudr.

Juthasankhwdr.

Kdchidri.

Kdchimdr.

Kaiobanudr.

Kairawdr, illegitimate issues.
Kdnbindhd, pierced ears.
Kdrdkdtd Karwdr, buffalo.
Katidr, will not wear silk
cloth.

Kesarid, Kesar, grass.

Khechd Kesria.

Kundidr.

i In Midnapur Kurmis say that once upon a time water being needed to clear
a place for some religious ceremony, a Kurmi there present made use of his
urme for the purpose, and his descendants were therefore called Chhonon*
mutroar.

Digitized by t^oosle

88 -

KUBMI.

Sub-caates. Sections.

Mangar, crocodile.
Mantrawdr.

Mathrwir.

Murmu, nilgao.

Mus, rat.

N&g, snake.

N&gbasri&r.

NSngtoy&r, give ohildren their
first noe naked.

Nau&khuri.

Punri&r.

RSjmor.

RimrimicL

S&lbartwcir, sdl jungle.
Sankhaw&r, will not wear
shell ornaments.

Si&r, jackal.

Soria, gold.

Tirucir.

Tukipitfi dumuri4, dutnur,

fig-

T undu&r.

Sub-castes.

Dakhinhi.

Tirhutifi.

Nuri.

■Caheri, Laherd.
Title : — Sahu.

Sections.

Kfisi.

MahuriA.

Sub- tribes . 1

Rong.

Khamba.

I^tpcha, Mon.

Septs.

Barphungpuso.

Adinpuso. 2

Singdyang.

Tingilmung.

Rangomung.

T6rzukmung.

Sungutmung.

N&mzingmung.

Luksom.

Sangmi.

1 As stated in the text, these groups are not now endogamous.

* As stated in the text, Adinpuso is the only one of these groups which is
now exogamous.

Digitized by {jOOQie

LIMBU.

£tmbu, Daa Limbu, Yakthumba, Tsortg, Chang.
Title : — Subha or Suffah (chief).

Sub-tribes ( thum or thum-thum).

1. P&nthar ...

2. Chhothar ...

3. Ahtharai ...

4. Yangorup ...

5. Chaibisa ...

6. Midkhola or Terothar

7. Charkhola ...

8. Maikhola ...

9. Phed£b or Bhuiphuta
10. Tambrkhola

.. [ Classed as Kasi-gotra, supposed to
.. > have immigrated into Nepal from
.. | Benares.

^ Classed as Lh&sa-gotra, supposed to
“ ^ have come from Lh*s&.

Septs ( thar ).

"Angdenba, lord of the forest.
Chehmjom, a native of Chehm.
Chikch&bd.

Of the Panthar
sub-tribe.

Chobegu.

Hangsnemba.

Ingmaba, he who kept fowls.

Kerungma.

Kokenamba, he who rises with the sun.

Laoti, he who was obeyed.

LuhfL

Manglagpa, 1 the dancer.

Mephagpa, the butcher, literally, pig-roaster.
Phejom, the fadcri-bearer, including (a) Nem-
bong, (6) Sardak-peapi.

Pheodan, the water-carrier.

Phyagpa, the knife-grinder.

Serma, rent-collector.

Songbangphe, the new settler.

Thekim, he who works in wioker, including
the following sub-septs : — (a) Meongba, w
Thamsong, (c) Chobegu, (d) Petehhunha, (e)
Angbu, the forest-dweller, (/) Takten, for-
merly doctors.

Toktiham.

T umbapo, the eldest.

T umbrok, bom of a step-mother.

Yangdenba, 2 he who paid his footing.

LYangsoba or Namlagpa, the chief of the tribe.

1 The ancestor of this thar was ridden (possessed ?) by a god, and danced.
* Descended from a Mech who got admission into the Limbu tribe by
bribing the heads of the thum-thum .

Digitized by {jOOQIC

LIMBU.

'Bargharri, the twelve brethren.

Khema , 1 a pheasant. Apparently totemistio.
Khojom, he who ate his earnings.
Kurumbhong , 2 the divider of the village.

Of the Chhothar . Legma, the worker in mud.
sub-tribe. ^ Maden, the son of his mother.

Sangma , 8 a buffalo. Apparently totemistio.
Teling, the worker in oane.

Thogleng, the suicide.

^Tungohong, the discontented.

Of the Ahtharai
sub-tribe.

TAngbohang, king of the fir wood.

I Inglamphe, the liar.

J Kondongwa, the vagabond.

^ Pomo, the large family.

| Thenglahbo, the native of Thenglah.
I T shendangkva, he who lives apart.
^Yakshoma, trie guardian of the fort.

Of the Tango
rup sub-tribe.

r lngyaromba.

Khebangba, the native of Khebang.

Khingba, branch of the same sept may not
intermarry.

Lechenche, the dissolute one.

Lekhogma, he with swollen testes.

| Admitted from the Lepchas.

Mahbho, branch of the same sept may not
' intermarry.

J Mangmu.

* Menyangbo, the unsuccessful one.

Mongtupo.

Phawahong, the name of a village.

Pondha, the wanderer.

Puktebu.

Serling, the thief.

Suwahong, the mendicant.

Thehbeh. 4

Thupuku.

Tumling.

^Yakpangden, the dweller on the pass.

1 This thar will not eat a pheasant or fowl or any bird of that class.
The story is that the founder went out to shoot pheasants in a fir copse, but
found none, and vowed never to eat a pheasant again.

8 The founder of this thar is said, for reasons not stated, to have divided
his village into two parts by drawing a line down the middle.

* The buffalo is taboo to this thar : the legend is the same as that of the
Khema thar, .

4 An eponymous thar , named after Thehbeh, son of Srnanga, the powerful
chief of the Limbus, since deified, who fought against Pritbi N$.r&yan, the
founder of the present ruling dynasty of Nepal.

Digitized by ^.oosle

LIMBU-

Of the Tango
rup sub-tribe
— concluded.

' Yfjcim, the wanderer, or eater.
Yithingu, the huntsman.
Yongyahang, the son of a chief.
, Yungm&i the idler.

rLhoringten, 1 the ohief of Morrung.

° f w 2^1 Papson^tWdopted one.

sub-tnbe. j pj C hagma, 2 the son of the monkey.

l^Sonyokpa, the guardian of the new fort.

rHangam, the king’s offioer.

Of the Mi&khola Lfbang, the archer,
or * Terothar< Nahlibo, 8 he who chased his wife,
sub-tribe. | Thoilong, the ragged one.

(JTsonbang, he who listens and profits.

Of the Charkhola
sub-tribe.

r Aktenhang, name of a domestic demi-god.
Lingdam, admitted from the Lepohas.
i Mahbu, 4 the physician.

' Nembang, the swollen one.

Photro.

Thogphelagu, he who wears the rhododendron
flower.

^Yongyahung, the aristocrat.

Of the Phedab
sub-tribe.

'Chikkophung, he who planted the brihati*
Hupachongbang, he who was blessed and pros-
pered.

Isbo, name of a village.

Khamapong, the dweller under the bar ( Ficus
religiosa) tree.

Lokmahung.

Lumphongma, those who shared the land.
Maden.

Musuhang, the lowland chief.

Ninglehku, one who cuts poisonous plants.
Obung-gyakpa, the dweller above the fountain.
Phehim, the singer.

Pho-omphu, the hangman.

Phungthag, he who stole to order.

Pongyangu, he who carries his goods onhisbaok.
^Senihang, sons of the snow-chief.

1 This thar was formerly under the Morrung Baja.

* This thar is said to have formerly worshipped the monkey.

* The story is that the wife of the founder of the thar runaway from him,
hut he caught ner and brought her back, and afterwards had a large family by
her.

4 Literally a shaker ; one who being ridden by ghosts or devils shakes
himself free : hence a physician.

4 A thorny plant with a bitter berry used for medical purposes.

Digitized by {jOOQie

LIMBU.

Of the Phedab
sub- tribe—
concld.

'Singogpa.

Sodemba, the spy.

Songbangphe, the dweller iu the valley.
So-onkobu, a resident of So-ouko.

I Sothung, name of a village.

] Thambden, the stay-at-home.

Theguba, the son of the olifE.

Thobukya, he who has skin disease.

T umbangphe , 1 the earth-born or Bhuiphuta.
Yurumbang, they of the central village.

'Legbahang.

Lingkhim.

Of the Tam- On-chhombo, the horse-seller,
brkhola sub-^ Phendui,* the hammerer of iron,
tribe- Sahmbahang.

Ssahoden, born in famine time.
„Thup-yumah, name of a place.

Septs.

Anglih.

Nagen.

Anlibing.

Nermih.

Baidohang.

Nogo.

Bikhim.

Pilu.

Chempajong.

Pirkhari.

Chungblng.

Patilang.

Hemphi.

Pekhi.

Hukpih.

Petungbah.

Ichommah.

Phalechhuah.

Ikteh.

Pheyak.

Ilimhing.

Ponthik.

Imsong.

Samwah.

Ithinku.

Singbah.

Kimbihing.

Sanjokmah.

Kimbing.

Sit ling.

Kephuk.

Seduah.

Khimthik.

Sekwahdeng.

Khobaipong.

Sene.

Khuadang.

Singjangkuk.

Kunbihong.

Singjuk.

Laktom&h&ng.

Sukhong.

Lingdenbeh.

Sukwabah.

Linglimphen.

Taijaung.

Lugumah.

Tilding. .

Mangoyak.

T ongbangboha.

Mangyong.

Tumkohong.

Muromah.

Yongyah.

1 This thar claims to be terra filii , and point out a huge rock which covers
the spot where their founder sprang from the earth.

* This thar was formerly the blacksmiths of the tribe.

Digitized by LjOOQLe

LOHAE.

|Coh$V, Kamar.

Titles: — Mistri, Rdut, Thdkur.

Sub-caste*.

In Behar —

Kanaujid.

Kokds.

Maghaya.

Kamdr Kalla.

Mahur or Mahuliya.
Mathuriyd.

Kamid, immigrants from
Nepal.

-§

’S’

-d

In Santdl Pargands —

Birbhumid.

Govindpurid.

Shergarhid.

In Lohardagd —

Manjhal-T uriya.
Munda-Lohdr.

Sad-Lohar.

Sisutbansi Loharia, Lohon-
dia.

i» Bankura—

Angaria.

Gobra.

Jhetia.

P^nsil i.

Sections.

'Asesmeghrdm.

Baswarid.

Begsarid.

Bermdn.

Bhdkur.

Biskarmd.

Bunichhor.

Chausdhd.

Damdarid.

Dhakanid.

Gungambhir.

Kamtarid.

Kantithid.

Kdsyapa.

Kathdr.

| Kathautid.
Kissaurid.
Kukurjhampar.
Kulthari Mallik
Pahlampuri.
Pdnre.

Rdne.

Sabri.

Sdmil Thdkur.
Sangiri Thdkur.
Sarwat.
Sonaman.
Supdhd.
Udhmatid.
^Sdlrishi, sdl fish.

Digitized by LjOOQle

LOHAK.

Sab-castes.

In Manbhum —

Lohir-Minjhi.

Danda-Minjhi.

Bigdi-Lohir.

Sub-tribes.

Sections.

Totemistic septs in Chota Nagpur.

Bagh, tiger.

Bin, a kind of eel.

Bando, wild oat, makes a loud noise
at night.

Bins, bamboo.

.Baroha.

Beloar, fruit.

Besra, a hawk.

Bhengraj, kingorow.

Bhutkuar.

Badri.

Bukru.

Chouria.

Churuar.

Demta, red tree-ant
Dhan, rioe soup forbidden.

Dumria, fig.

Gaintwar.

Goloar, sweet potato.

Gunj, a kind of fruit.

Hardi, turmeric.

Hastuar.

Hatti, elephant.

Hemrom.

Induar, a kind of eel.
dal war, net.

Kachua, tortoise.

Kaethoar, a ourry vegetable.

Kaisale.

Kamal, lotus.

Kanda, sweet jpotato.

Kanojia, a tribe.

Karhar, a jungle fruit.

Karkosa, oow.

Karkusa, a bird.

Kaua, orow.

Kerketta, a bird.

Digitized by

Google

LOHAB.

Sub- tribes.

Sub-eastes

Biswds-Madak.

J&ti-Madak.

Madhu-Madak.

Relati-Madak.

Totemistic septs in Chota Nagpur.

Kisnot, a tribe.

Koed, a wild beast.

Kons, grass.

Kusuar, a river-fish.

Lalihar, a bird.

Lumria, a fox.

Maelwar.

Maghaia, a place.

Maghnia.

Mahili Munda, a tribe.

Mahili, a tribe.

Mormu, deer.

Mutriar.

Ndg, cobra.

Pdnru, a snake.

Phutka, vegetable.

Purti.

Retha, fruit.

Runda, a wild oat.

San, heron.

Scindh, bullook.

Sangalwar.

Saur, a fish.

Semanohangiar.

Sonaome.

Sonbesra, a bird.

Son Maghia.

SonTirki.

Suia, a small bird.

Tirki, can’t touoh any animals
after their eyes open.

T opoar, a bird.

Udwar, a water-oat.

Madak.

Sections.

Alamy&n.

Bharadwija.

K&syapa.

Maudgalya.

Pardsara.

S&ndilya.

Digitized by

Google

MAGH.

^Trtgk, Mag.

Sab-tribes.

Thongtha, Thongcha or Jumid Magh.
Marma, Myamma or Ro£ng Magh.
Maramagri, R&jbansi, Baru£ or
BhuiyA Magh.

Septs.

Cherengtsa.

Chingrisa.

Hroimajusa.

Kaukdaintsa.

Keophasa.

Kogdengsa.

Kolasa.

Krong Khyungtsa.

Kwinjusa.

Kyaukmatsa.

Kyaukpiatsa.

Mahlaingtsa.

Marotsa.

OrS.

Palainggritsa.

Palaingtsa.

Pal&sa.

Phrangroatsa.

Rigretsa.

Saboktsa.

Taingchait.

Uengsa.

Wadsuesa.

Waientsa.

^ahesvi.

Sab-ooste. Sections.

Dasa.

Sabu.

Millak.

Mundra.

Sadra.

Rauti.

Gat&ni.

Sow&ni.

Tela.

M&lpAni.

Loy4.

Lakhotia.

T&bria.

Palaur.

Murkia.

Janweir.

K&bra.

Baoti.

rfftahUi, Mahali.
Titles:— Mcinjhi, Mahoto.

Kall&ni.

Sub-castes.

Sections.

Bansphor-Mah i 1 i .

Chardhagia.

Mahili-Mund&.

Chardhi&r.

P&tar-Mahili.

Charhar, a tree.

Sulunkhi-Mahili.

Dhilki.

T&nti-Mahili.

Dumri6r or Dungri, wild ng.

Digitized by ^.oosle

MAH1LI.

Sub-castes.

Seotions of the Mahili-
Mundd sub-caste.

Sections.

Goondlii a kiud of grain* forbidden.
Hdnsdd or Hasdagidr, wild goose.
Hemron.

Induar, a kind of eel.

Kantudr or Kdnti, ear . 1
Karkusd.

Khangar.

Kharidr.

Kathargdch, jack fruit tree.
Kerketa, a kind of bird.

Kundiar.

Mahukal, a bird; its long tail.
Mandridr.

Marri . 2

Murmudr, nilgio.

Patariar.

Pilua, a caterpillar.

Rondiar.

Sarihin.

Silli.

T apaer, a bird.

T?rki', bull.

Tunduar.

T uru, grass, cotton, fruit or seed.

T utiear.

{ Bhuktudr.

Ldng Chenre.

Sangd.

1 Members of the Kantuar section may not eat the ear of any animal.

* Members of the Marri section do not allow their married daughters to
enter their houses.

Titles: — Haidar, Khdmid, Mach hud, Mdnjhi.

Sub-castes.

Dhalid

Gobrd

Khera

Rajbansi

Sanaganthd

In Bankura.

Dhunakata \

Rajbansi I

Sapurya or \InMidnapur and
Bediya- l Manbhum.

Mai. ]

T ungd

Sections.

Fenga, a bird.
Garur, adjutant.
Ghdtu, a bird.
Kachhap, tortoise.
Ndg, snake.

Pdtrishi, bird.
Penkdl-mdchh, fish.
Sdl-mdchh, fish.

Digitized by ijOOQie

MAL.

Sub-cutes.

;}

Khuturid
Mallik
Raj bans
Deswdr

Magahiyd
Raj bans i or
Rdja-Mdl.
Rarhi-Mal

Sindurd

In Birbhum.

In the Santdl Par-

ganas.

Sections.

/ATdli. Samaria-Male, Saurid, Savar Paharia, Samil Paharid,
* Ami Paharia , Sangi.

Mdlakar, Phulmali.

Title : — Rdut (in Behar).

Sub-castes.

(a) In Bengal —

(1. Rarhi.

Phulkatd-NIdli 2 - Barendra.

(.3. Athgharia.

Dokdne-Mali.

(b) In Behar —

None.

Section*.

(a) In Bengal —

Alamydn.

Kdsyapa.

Maudgalya.

Sdndilya.

(6) In Behar —

Bhanddri.

Mallik.

Midler, Malo-Patni.

Titles: — Bepdri, Jdliyd, Jdlo, Jalwd, Mdnjhi, Pdtra.

Sub-caste.

None.

Sections.

Alimdn.

Bdnardsi.

Bangas-rdsi.

Bharan-rdsi.

Khonrd-rdsi.

Kdrtik-rdsi.

Kulin-rdsi.

Mesh-rdsi.

Padma-rdsi.

Puyi-rdsi.

Singh-rdsi.

Sib-rdsi.

Udadhi.

Digitized by LjOOQle

UAL PAH ARIA.

99 1

Titles: — M&njhl, N&ik, Sard&r.

Sab-tribes. Septs . 1

Kum£r or Komar-Bhag. Ahriti, hunters.

Mk\ Pah&ri& proper. Dehriti, priests.

Gr i h i , householders.

Mcinjhi, village headman.
P£tra.

Pujhor, priests.

Sikd4r.

l The names of the septs are said to denote the original occupations
of their members at the time when exogamy was introduced. The Male
tribe, of which, according to Buchanan, the M&l Pah&riis are an offshoot, have
no exogamous divisions.

Magar> Thomi.

Sub- tribes.

Titles R4n&, Sing, Th&pa.

Than or septs.

Atharcih Panth.

Burathoki.

Gharti.

Sakha I i.

Ach&mi. 1

Agri.

Afeh, AIMS. 1
Arghaunle (?).
Bareya.

Bhuj&l.

Braili.

Brangplagi. 1

By£ngn4si.

Charmi.Chermi

Chitauri4(?).

Chumi.

Darnal.

Darr& Lfimi.
Datt.

Devapdti.

Dhamaia.

Dhanuki.

Dukhchdki.

G4cha.

Gadaili.

Gad&l.

Gajamer.
Gandharma (?).
Gel£ng.

Gh&li.

Ghatani.

Ghatraj.

Gonda.

Gr&njd.

Gurm&chhan.

Gy&ngmi.

Haio.

dhdngdi.

•Jhdri (?).

»• Kair4ld.
Kalaloh&r.
Keli.

Kh4pangi.

Khaptari.

Khati.

Khuldl.

Krubchh&gi. 1

Ky&gchhigi. 1

Lahakpd.

Lakindri.

Lamgadeh.

L&mich&nya.

Lamjil.

Lha-yo. 1

Loh&gun.

Lungyeli.i

.-.I 1 TlSJ! “ Ten thar, ‘ bedd ® 8 one D0t known > are called the Bira Mangar, and hold the
title of Th&pa.

7 a

Digitized by {jOOQie

100

MANGAR.

8nb- tribes.

Thar* or

septs.

Magrathi. 1

Marsyingdi.

Miski.

Meng.

Namjili.

Pachiin(?).

Pinthi.

Parbateh.

Phyuyili.

Pithilcoteh. 1

Pongwar. 1

Pulimi. 1

Pun.

Pung.

Pusal.

Rahapil.

Rakhil.

Rasail i.

Rijal.

Sabkota.

Sadisankar.

Saringi.

Siru.

Setisurwil.

Sheo.

Sijapati (7).

Sincheuli.

Singauri.

Sinjali.

Sithung.

Sripili.

Suniri.

Surya Vansi.

Suyil.

Tilu.

Thida.

Thokchiki.

T oringrapi.

Yingdi.

Yingmi.

1 These four than, beside* one not known, are called the Bdra Mangar, and hold the
title of Thipa.

Sub-caste.

Nil.

^tif, Mdlwe Rajput.

Sections.

Aindi eel.
Gandharb.
Kisi.
Paris.

(4-ftaulik, Ldyd, Ndyd.

Title : — Bhumphor, peculiar
Sub-castes.

Chandana.

Hariyin or Jehariyi.

Mai or Mdr.

Sauriyi-

Raj bans i ) Call themselves
Deobansi ) Hindus.

to the Mai sub-caste.

Sections.

Belawahari, tree-rat.

Boro Simp, rock-snake.
Dudhii, snake.

Rikhiisan or Pitrisi,
described as a small red
bird with a long tail.

Digitized by

Google

MAYABA.

101

(iRittliU'i, Modak, Mail'd , Kuri.

Titles:— Ash, Chandra, Datta, Bar At, De, DAn, Gui, Indl,
LAhA, NAg, Nandi, Rakhit, RAj.

Sub-castes,

Sections.

In Central Bengal—

RArh-Asram.

AlamyAn.

Mayur-Asram.

BharadwAja.

Aja-Asram.

Chandrarishi

Dharm-Asram or

Debrishi.

Dharm-Sut.

Madhurishi.

In Dacca—

Kasyapa.

Gautam.

EkpatiA.

Majurrishi.

DopatiA.

Ganesrishi.

NAgrishi.

SAndilya.

Somrishi.

Mechi.

Sab- tribes.

(a) In Darjiling —

AgniA-Mech.

JAti-Mech.

( b ) In Assam —

AgniA-Mech.

Assam-Mech.

KachrA-Mech.

ThampAi-Mech.

Septs of the AgniA sab- tribe.

BamodA.

BosmAthA.

ChhongphthAng.

ChongphrAn.

IsAre.

KuktAiAre.

MochhAre.

NarjenAre.

NobaiAre.

PhAdAm.

SabAiAre.

SibingAre.

Digitized by LjOOQle

102

MUCHI.

^Vluchi, Bishi, Rishijmtm, Nislri.

Titles :-Darshan, Muchiram D4s, Patrad&s, Ruid&s, Sparshan.

Sub-castes. Sections. 1

Bard-

bh&giyd £

Uttar- rarhi.
Dakhin-rarhi.

Chhota-bhagiya.

ChSsa-Kurur or Chasa-Kolai.
Betud.

Jugi-Muchi or Kora.

Baital.

Kurur.

Malabhumid.

Sabarkar&.

S&nki.

K&syapa.

S&ndilya.

1 These are not exogamous, and no snb-caste appears to have more than
one seotion, K&syapa or S&ndilya, as the case may be.

(iftuntut, Mura, Horo-hon.

Titles Bhuinhar, Dhangar, Kol, Konkpat, Mahato,
Manki, Nagbansi.

Sub-tribes.

Septs.

Bhuinh&r-Munda.

Karangd-Munda.

Khangar-Munda.

Kharia-Munda.

Kol-Munda.

Konkpat-Munda.

Mahali-Munda.

Manki-Munda.

Munda-Manjhi.

Nagbansi-Munda.

Oraon-Munda.

Sad-Munda.

Savar-Munda.

Aind, a kind of eel.

Amba, mango.

Ambras, a fruit.

Area, a kind of fish.

Aru, yam.

Arul.

Ash&r, a month — June.

Asur Lohara.

Aura, fruit.

Baba, rioe.

Bage, anything forbidden.

Bagear, tiger.

Baghela, quail.

Baghtuar, a devotee.

Bahera, a fruit.

Bahomar.

Balamd&r, spearman.

Balmus, a kind of insect which is found
in the sand of rivers.

Digitized by

Google

MUNDJL

103

Sub-tribes.

Septs.

Balum, salt.

Baman, may not touoh or bo touched by
a member of the Brahman caste.
Banda, a kind of leaf.

Bando, small jaokaL
Bar, Ficus Indica.

Barabhaia, the twelve brothers’ sept.
Barha, hog.

Bari, flower.

Barjo, name of an ancestor’s village
some miles south of Ranchi.

Barjoki, fig tree root.

Barfa, a fruit.

Barukandal, the kussum tree.

Barunda, a big frog.

Barupendil, kussum tree.

Barwa, small cocoon.

Basaroar, a kind of small hawk.
Batkuar, a bird.

Beng, frog.

Basra, small hawk.

Bhaji S&g, vegetable.

Bhaonra, a large blaok bee or hornet.
Bhengra, a horse.

Bhingraj, kiogcrow.

Bhinjo, a yellow bird.

Bhuina.

Bhutkuar.

Bihan, seed.

Binha.

Binjuar, a kind of eeL
Bisrot.

Bisru, a kind of bird.

Bocho, a bird.

Bodra, the ancestors of this sept did not
wash their mouths after eating.

Bojra, a kind of grass.

Budh or Budhwar, Wednesday.

Buim, a worm.

Bukru, a kind of bird.

Chad i I, place of worship of a head-
man.

Chadu, a kind of bird.

Chali, rice soap.

Champia, a bird.

Chata, umbrella.

Chauria, rats.

Chelekchela, a small bird.

Chilhia, kite.

Chirko, mushroom.

Digitized by

Google

104

MUNDA.

Sub-tribes.

Septs.

Chitti, a kind of snake.

Chocha, a bird.

Chota, a kind of bird.

Chutia, a small rat.

Dctng, a big stiok.

Dahanga, torch-bearer.

Dangarwar.

Dauru.

Demta, red tree-ant.

Dhan, paddy. To this sept rioe and
rice soup are forbidden ; they eat only
gondii or millet.

Dhechua, a kind of black bird.
Dhelakata, a kind of tree.

Dirwar, a wood fruit.

Dobongwar.

Dodrai, a kind of bird.

Dub Sag, vegetable.

Dumrfar, figs.

Dundu, a kind of eel.

Dungdung, a river-fish.

Dura, a fruit.

Ergat, a kind of mouse which lives in
plum bushes.

Gandura, a big bird.

Garabing, a big river-snake.

Gari, a monkey.

Garria, a kind of bird.

Ghager, field bird.

Ghi, olarified butter.

Ghunri, a kind of fruit.

Gidh, a vulture.

Gobolachan, may not eat beef.

Gondii, a kind of grain.

Goria, red earth.

Gua, areoa nut.

Gundki, a kind of wood.

Gundri, a bird.

Gurni, a kind of vegetable.

Guru, may not eat beef.

Habin, a tree.

Hadung, big black tree-ant.

Haieri, a kind of tree or bush.
Haluman, monkey.

Han, nest of ants.

Hanjait, a wild fruit.

Hanre, a bird.

Hansa, swan.

Hanthi, elephant.

Hardwar.

Digitized by

Google

MUNDA. .

105

8ub4ribe«.

Septs.

Hargurra, bone.

Hari, ancestors did not wash their
months after eating.

Harin, deer.

Ha8ada.

Hasar6.

Hassa ara, a kind of vegetable.
Hausakar.

Heding, a bird.

Hembowar, ancestor.

Hemram, a kind of fish.

Hemromi, ashes.

Heride, a bird.

Herung, a kind of bird.

Hoduar, a bird.

Homjah.

Hcng, a kind of bird with a long tail.
Horia, a wood bush.

Horo, a red ant on tree.

Hularbaha, a flower used to flavour
curry.

Hundar, wolf.

Huni, mouse.

Hirtar.

Imli, tamarind.

Indur katea, house-rat.

Ingaria, moonlight.

Jagdar.
dago, tamarind.

damtuti, a kind of grain or vegetable,
dangatras, the bone of a oow.
datrama.
d atria.

dhuri, dried bushes,
d ia, a river-fish,
d irhul, a flower, used for ourry.
ditiapipar, a kind of fruit,
donk Haper, leeoh.

Kachhud, tortoise.

Kakin, aunt.

Kamal, lotus.

Kanda, a kind of sweet potato.

Kandir, a bird.

Kandru, fish.

Kandurua, a fruit.

Karania, a kussum tree.

Karma, a tree.

Katea, a field-mouse.

Kaua, crow.

Kawnria, a water-snake.

Digitized by

Google

106

MTJNDA.

6ub>tribe*.

Septs. '

Kera, plantain.

Kerketa, a bird.

Khandania.

Khondua.

Khoyea, a wild dog with a long taiL
Khukri, a kind of mushroom.

Kiri, rice weevil.

Kissi.

Kod, ooooon.

Kodosdg, a kind of water vegetable.
Kongaddi, crow.

Kotah kaisi, a small vulture.

Kujri, a fruit from which oil is made.
Kukur, dog.

Kukura.

Kundula.

Kurkuti, red ant.

Kursi, fruit.

Kusumbaha, kussum flower.

Lang, a kind of bird.

L&pung, a small bird.

Larapa, monkey-eater
Larsunar.

Lenda, earthworm.

Lilia, a wild cow.

Lipo, a tree.

Litiya, a bird.

Logna Kotra, small deer.

Logo, a kind of animal.
Lohrakhukhri, a kind of mushroom.
Longa, a bird with a long taiL
Lugniar, rabbit
Lugum, a tree.

Lugun, a tree.

Lugunki.

Lupu, paddy husks.

Luti, small blaok fly.

Machli, fish.

Madhuras, honey.

Mahukal, a bird.

Maina, a bird.

Mar, new rice soup.

Marmu.

Matha Sdg, a kind of vegetable.
Mathia, brass bracelet.

Maugh, fish.

Mind.

Minjur, peacock.

Mowl.

Muduk.

Digitized by

Google

MUNDA.

107

Sub-tribes.

Septa.

Mundoraj, a tree.

Mundri, quail.

Munga Sag, a kind of vegetable.
Munri, fried rioe.

Murum, stag.

Muri, a wild fowl.

Musa or Musu, mouse.

Mutri.

Nadi Samp, a river-snake.

N&g, cobra.

Nagduar, a water-inseot.
Nagrua, a kind of mud.

Nimak, salt.

Nois.

Oaria, verandah.

Orea, basket-maker.

Pakhora.

Pamia, a tree.

Pandar, a tree.

Panduchone.

Panduki, dove.

Pankhi, a bird.

Panr, a tribe.

Pardhiel kokaw.

Parsi, a tree.

Parsu, a bush.

Peo, a bird.

Peroan, pigeon.

Phurti.

Phuti, a rainbow.

Pikord, a bird.

Porti, orooodile.

Pussi, cat.

Putam, dove.

Raja, a bird.

Ramgharia.

Rani Poka, a red worm*

Raut, the Rautia caste.

Rugrij a kind of mushroom.
Rukhi, squirrel.

Runda, leopard.

Rut&, a tree.

Sadom, horse.

Sailum, porcupine.
Saisarunduar.

Sal, a big pond-fish.

Salkar, a kind of potato.

Salu, a root in pond.

Samal or Samar, deer.
Samdoar.

Digitized by

Google

IQS

MUNDA.

Sub-tribes. Septs.

Sandi, plough.

Sandiguria, black monkey.

Sandil, full moon.

Sandipurti, cock.

Sandi Sarin, fowl.

Sanga, sweet potato.

Sang Chiria, a kind of bird.

Sangoar, sweet potato.

Sank ura, kingorow.

Sanpuri, a resident of Sanpur.

Sarai, a tree.

Samar, a curry vegetable.
Semarkanda, root.

Sengra, horse.

SeorniS.

Serhar, a kind of bird.

Setampa, dog-eater.

Sewar, moss.

Siar Tuyio, jackal.

Sikcharo, a bird.

Sikra, hawk.

Sindur, vermilion.

Singh, horn.

Sisungi, a kind of fish.

Soa, a kind of vegetable.

Soai, a bird.

Sobarnarekha, name of a river three
miles east from Ranchi.

Soeka, a wood bush.

Sohek, a kind of fish.

Soi, spring.

Sokoe, a kind of fruit.

Solai, fish.

Sonarwa, a bird.

Sone, may not wear gold.
Sonkharihan, a place where they
worship before cutting grain.

Son Maghia.

Soso bheioa, a fruit.

Suga, parrot.

Sukru, potato.

Sulankni, a kind of bird.

Surhi, a wood-cow.

Suri, fly.

Suril, do not propitiate the Churin
Deota.

Surin.

Susan.

fr- Taitum.

T&mb&, copper.

Digitized by ^.oosle

MUNDA.

109

Sub-tribes. Septs.

Tamgarihar.

Tamghuria.

Tarwar, may not touch a sword.

T atia, a kind of bird.

Telia, a tree.

Tewan raja, a kind of bird.

Thithio, a bird 'with long legs.

Tlrango, a wood-bird.

Tirki, a bird.

Tirkiar, tree-mioe.

Tiro, a small bird.

Tirtia, a bird.

Tiru, a kind of bird.

Tiruhar, a kind of bird.

Toeba, flower of parat tree.

T oewa, a kind of bird.

T ongsi, a bird.

T ono, a big tree-ant.

Topna, tree.

T opoar, a bird.

T ow, a kind of bird.

Tulsiar, a kind of flower.

Tumbli, a red flying-ant.

Tunduar, a tree.

Turania.

Tursia.

Turu, squirrel.

T uruar, a fruit — kussum.

T uti, a kind of vegetable.

. Uchring, an inseot.

Udbarn, a tree, the oil of which is not
used by members of the sept.

Urdwar.

Uring, a wild bird.

^Turmi, Tamang , Ishang, Sain.

Sub-caste. Sections.

t * \

jfil. Baibci. G6bag.

Baju. Galan.

Bal. Gdnthen.

Baltong. Ghale.

Bomjan. Ghising.

Buiun. Gole.

Chapen Khor. Gomdan.
Chumi. GongW.

Dumjan. Gothar.

Digitized by {jOOQie

MURMI.

Sub-caste.

Sections.

-A—

(

Grandan.

Neki.

Hopthen.

IMesur.

Jimb&.

Pakhrin.

Jongan.

RumbcU

Khctni Khor.

SSngbS.

Kitung.

S&ngdan.

Khungbct.

Sherbet Khor.

Kulden.

Singar.

L&m& Khor.

Singden.

Lo.

Songden.

Lopchan.

Thing.

Marmunba.

Thokar.

Mekchan.

Titung.

Mokt&n.

Tubah.

Nirb4.

Mushar } BhuiyL

Titles : — Manjhi, S&da.

Sub-caitej.

Section*.

Bahtawar.
ChanrwSr.
Chiksaurii.
Dh&r.
Kanaujia.
Maghaiy£ or
Deswar.
Nathua.
PachhmS.
Suraj ia.
Tirhutia.

Of the Chanr- Ghurmutnd.
war sub-caste.

Of the Chiksau-
ri& sub-caste.

fGictri.

Kanghattd.

Kosilwar.

^ Mahatwcir.
Patwciri.
Phulwcir.
Sonwahi.

f B&lakmuni.
Daitinid.

Gohlaut.

Of the Mngahiyd^ Pail.

sub-caste. I Rikh-mun, Rishi-
I muni.

^Tisbarid.

Of the Tirhutia
sub-oaste.

fBdnsghdt Pahadi-
nagar.

I Dhanh&rii.

4 Sarpurkhd —

I Chakbarii.
Kasmetd.
Mirtarte.

Digitized by ^.oosle

MUSAHAB.

Ill

Sub- castes. Sections.

Baiydr.

Balgachhid.

Batwar or Batwdri.

Bhachhudr.

Bhakhidsin.

Bhuiydr.

Churihdr.

Dhangpatid.

Didr.

Dodhudr or Dodwdr.
Gdurid.

Gendud.

Gibhdri.

Kdsyap.

Khatdhdr.

Mehdriyd.

Mandwdr.

Sand hod.

Sondhudr.

Suruar.

Tikait Bhogtd.
Ulaurid.

Up war i yd.

iligav.

Titles :—Bi 8 wds, Chaudhri, Langi, Mahdrdnd, Panjidr, Panch-
ndmd-Mandar, Rdut.

Sub-castes. Section.

dethaut. Kdsyapa.

Pulauns.

Ndgbansi.

Kdthautid.

Bhatndgar.

Nagasid, Kisan.

Title Ban-Ganjhu.

Sab-tribes. Septs.

Sendara-Nagasia, use sindur at Amba, mango.

marriage. Bar la, Ficus Jndica.

Telia-Nagasia, use oil instead of Dhanki.

sindur at marriages. Induar, a kind of eel.

Mahto. a kind of eel.
Manjhi, a title.

Ndg, cobra.

Sonwani, can’t wear gold.
Taitia.

Tirki, a bulk

Digitized by {jOOQie

112

N AIY ft.

Title : — PujShci.

Sub-casle. Sections.

Nil. Bhul&.

Chilkhor.

Ohankoi.

Kulkhw&r.

Yahidn.

#ipit, Ndi Naud.

Titles Barik, Bhand&ri, Baidya, 1 Chandra-baidya,' Dds,
Khyaurak&r, Khctn, Nara-Sundar, Nandi, Pardmdnik,
Sfl, Biswas, Mazumdctr, Mandai, Shdhd, Sarkdr,
Shikd&r, o&rddr.

Sub-castes.

Sections.

Anarpurid.*

Bamanbane.

Bdrendra. _

Uttar-rdrhi.

Dakshin-rdrhi.

Paschim-r&rhi.

Mahmuddbdz 5

•

Saptagr&m.

03 -+£

a s

Sdtgharid.

f-q §
© •

Phul-Ndpit.

In Noak/uili —

O NJ

Bhulud-N&pit.

Sundipd-Napit.

In the 24 -Parganas —

Alamydn.

Gargrishi.

Kdsyapa.

Madhukuliya.

Maudgalya.

Sdndilya.

'Bhagabdn.

Daibaki.

Jddab-Mddhab.

Kdndi-Madan.

*{ Mahdmandd.
Rdm.

Rdghab.

Rdjib.

^Siva.

Haldar-Pardmanik.

Kola-Pardmanik.

Hansadaha-Paramdnik.

Mujganji-Pardmdnik.
Khottd. *

1 These titles are borne only by Napits who practise medicine.
s A few cases have occurred of marriages between members of these
groups, but the breach of rule had in each instance to be expiated by giving
a feast to the community. , , . _ , _ .

8 A designation of up-country barbers who have settled in BengaL Such
persons practically form a separate sub-caste, as Bengali barbers will not
intermarry with them, and they are regarded as impure by the barbers of
Upper India and Behar by reason of their having taken up their residence in
Bengal.

Digitized by ^.oosle

nunia.

113

<^uni£,

Lunia, Noniydn, Nun g olid.

Titles: Beider, Ch&imar&r, Chaudhri, Jamadar, Mah^tm4,
Mahton, Mandar, Mardr, Mihtar, RSut.

Sub-castes.

1. Awadhi&or AyodhidbSsi.

2. Bhojpurici.

3. Kharaont.

4. Maghaya.

5. Orh.

6. Pachainyd or Chauhdn.

7. Semarwar.

Sections.

(a) Totemistic —

Andhigot.

Jamgot.

N6g.

Pechgot.

Phulgot.

(6) Eponymous —

Bachgot.

Bdghgot.

K4chhgot.

Kdsyapa.

Sub-tribes.

Berga-Oraon.

Dhanka-Oraon.

Kharia-Oraon.

Khendro-Oraon.

Munda-Oraon.

Titles Dhangar, Kol, Parja.

Septa.

Arnri, rice soup.

Bagh, tiger.

Bandh.

oando, a wild cat whioh barks at niaht
Bakula, paddy-bird. ®

Bar, Ficus Indica.

Barwa, a wild dog.

Basa, a tree.

Bekh, salt.

Beanh, a large fish with thorns on its
back.

Bhakla.

Chigah, a jackal.

Chirra, a squirrel.
Chouria Musa, field-rat.
Dhan, rice soup forbidden.
Dhechua, kingcrow.

Dirra, a kind of eel.

Dom Khakha, a raven.
Ekka, tortoise.

Ergo, a rat.

Gari, monkey.

Garwe, a stork.

Gede, a duck.

Gidhi, a vulture.

Gislihi, a bird.

Godo, orocodile

Digitized by ^.oosle

OBAOir.

Sub-tribe*.

Septs.

Golala.

Gondrari, a tree.

Induar, a kind of eeL
Kachua, tortoise.

Kaith, ourry vegetable.

Kanda, sweet potato.

Kaua, crow.

Kendii a tree.

Kenu, a fish.

Keond, a fruit.

Kerketa, a bird whiob makes a noise
liko ^

Khalkhoa, cannot eat fish caught by
baling water out of a tank or pool.
Kheksa, ourry vegetable.

Khes, cannot eat plants that grow in
ponds.

Khetta, a oobra.

Khoepa, a wild dog.

Kinda, a date palm.

Kispotta, pig’s entrails.

Kosuar, a kind of fish.

Kujur, a fruit used to stain the horns
of oattle at the Sohrai festival.

Kundri, curry vegetable.

Kusuwa, a fish.

Lakra, a hyena.

Lila, a kind of fish.

Linda, an eel.

Loha, iron.

Mahato, a title.

Minji, a kind of eel.

Munjniar, a wild creeper.

Murga, cock.

Nagbans, oobra.

Orgonra, a hawk.

Pusra, fruit of kusum tree.

Putri, a tree.

Rori, a fruit or tree.

Runda, a fox.

S&i, fish.

Samo.

Suar, hog.

Tig Hanuman, monkey.

Tirki, young mice.

Tirkuar, fruit.

Tirtia.

Tiru, a kind of fish.

Topoar, a bird with a long tail, and
body mottled black and white.

Digitized by

Google

OSWAL.

115

Uitcdl.

Sub-caste*.

Oswtil proper.
Dasi.

Titles:— Ch&nd, D&s, Dosi, L6b, Singh.

Section*.

Baid.

Baidmota.

Chaj ia.

Chaudalia.

Chopra.

Chur&liye.

Dh&riwar.

Gelra.

Golchi&.

Hinga.

Jambar.

M4lkas.

Methl.

Nakat.

Nolka.

Ranka.

Saitiya.

Set or Seth.
Sil.

Singh i.

Soni.

Srimal.

Srisrimal.

Suchait.

P<imca > ■£«»'*» Pab > Pdnika > C/tik, Chik-Bardik, Bardik
Mahato , Gan da, Satcasi, Tdnti, \

Snb-castes.
In Manbhum—
Bardik.

In Lohai’dagd and Sarguja—
Chik or Chik-Bar&ik.
Sawasi or Tanti.

Ganda.

In Orissa —

Orh-Pcin or Uriya-P&n.
Buna-Pan.

Betra-Pdn or R&j-P&n.
Patradid.

Sections.

Alnd, a kind of eel.
Babunhathia.

Bail.

Bajar.

Balbandhi.

Baleswar or Balasore.
Ban do, small wild oat.
Banjor.

Bar, Ficus Indica.
Barabih&.

Bardi.

Bariaro.

Digitized by {jOOQie

116

PAN,

Sectiona.

Bel, a fruit.

Beniaro, frog.

Benkurd.

Besrd, a small hawk.
Bhaisa, buffalo.

Bhanjor.

Bhata, brinjal.

Birdr, a oat.

Bordi.

Buru.

Cherabesari.

Cherchete, a shrub jungle.
Chik, a tribe.

Chownr, yak’s tail.
Dandpati.

Ddsabigha.

Dasbihd.

Daskaria, wild fowl.
Demta, a red tree-ant.
Dhondh, a water-snake.
Dhunkro.

Dond-Chatra.

Gajbanid.

Ghogor.

Ghordbach.

Goal, cow.

Hekoria, tomato.

Hunjar.

Hurjor.

Jia.

Kachua, tortoise.

Kansi, a grass.

Karunjua, a big blaok bird.
Kaua, crow.

Kesarari.

Kesrd, rahar Ml.
Khechinjid.

Khutibaran.

Kirki.

Kukuria.

Kulhai.

Kulhasia.

Kunjakuli.

Kunjasiri.

Kurai.

Kusum, a fruit.

Kutunjid.

Loha, iron.

Lowa.

Machiwar.

Digitized by

Google

PAN.

117

Sections.

Mahdnadia, name of a river.
Mahatoar, a title.

Mahua, bassia latifolia.
Matua.

Maraii wood-louse.

Mayur, peaoock.

Mechari.

Mongri.

Mudu.

Mul.

Murchulia.

Mus, Musa, rat.

N4g, cobra.

Padowar.

Panchbiha, Panchbhia.
Panchhiah.

Purti.

R4jbansia.

Rajhasia, swan.

Raotia, crab.

Renta.

Saonsia.

Saruan.

Saul, a fish.

Sikra, hawk.

Si Ili, a place.

Sindh ikuria, bull’s horn.
Sing, horn.

Singhi, fish.

Sinjhikaria.

Sonamati.

Sonkharika.

Sonkoko.

T otabari.

Urmakhori.

Urmakuli.

flarijltf, ranged.

Sob-castes.

1. Supd-Parghd.

Kumdr.

2. Paliyar-Pargh4.

Mdnjhi

Marar.

Marik.

Ojh4.

Sections.

P4tai\

R4i.

Raut.

Siyar.

Digitized by ^.oosle

118

PARHAIYA.

prhatp.

Titles Kheroar, GAnju, Manjhi.

8ab-trib*. Septs.

Nil. Big, tiger.

Gachai.

Gidh, vulture.

Fanigl, grasshopper.
Kaui, orow.

Mainl, a bird.

Nig, oobra.

Ophia.

Tetenga, bloodsuoker.

psi.

Title Mahato.

Sab-castes.

1. Byldhl.

2. Gaiduhl.

3. Klmlni.

4. Tirsulil.

Turk (Mahomedan).

Section.

K&syapa.

Pttti, Patuni, Patauni, Dom-Pdtni.

Titles : — Ganglputra, Ghlt-M&njhi, Mlnjhi, Pradhln.

Sections.

(a) Territorial —

Bhadragh&t.
Jhinifu

Balami or

Sub-castes.

1. Jlt-PItni.

2. Ghlt-Pltni,

Ghatwll.

3. Dom-PItni, Machhwl or

Naglrchi.

4. Blnsphor.

5. Dlgarl.

Klllglchi.

Klliwlll-

Naskarpurl.

Parlmanik.

Prlchir.

Rlipur.

Saidlbld.

Slttl.

Tentulil.

(6) Eponymous —

Alyam&n.

Sub-tribe.

Nii.

ptsr.

Title:— Mahto.

Septs.

Bh eng raj, kingcrow.
Charak, a festival.
Kachua, tortoise.
Katun.

Kerwlrl, a tribe.

Digitized by

Google

PATOB.

119

8 ub -tribe. Septs.

Maitbukru, place where he buries his
bones, being his ancestral birthplace.
N&g, cobra.

Samatti.

Sandilai.

Sarihin.

Silli, place where he buries his hones,
being his anoestral birthplaoe.

Taw.

$0i>, Padmar&j, Chdti.

Titles:— Baidya, Bisw&s, H&ld£r, Kay&l, Laskar, Mandat,
Mistri, P&ik, PAtra, Pundari K&khya, Sapui, Sark&r. ■

Sub-castes.

B&gande.

BanglA.

ChAsi-Pod.

Khott& or Maun&.
Uriy&.

Sections.

Alamy&n.

Dh&nesri.

K&syapa.

Maudgalya or Madhu
Kulya.

^Rijput, Kshatriya, Chhatri or Chhetri , Bihuja, Bhupdl,
Bhupati, B/nisur.

Titles: — B&bu, Baraik, Barman, Kh&n, Malik, Mandat, R&j,
Raut, S&mant, Singh, Sip4hi, Th&kur.

Sub-tribes.

Septs.

In Behar —

Suryabansi,

Amaith \&.

ChaubariA.

Surajbansi.

Baghail or Baghel.

ChaubnAn. 1

Bar£hi.

DandwAr.

BaraiA.

GaharwAr.

BargAir.

Gautam.

BesAin. 1

Harihobans.

BhadariA.

JasatbAr.

BharsuriA.

KachhwAh.

BirwA.

KAkan.

Chandail.

Kanwar.

1 Besair Chaubbin, and Mabraur cannot intermarry, being supposed to
be descended from the same ancestor.

Digitized by {jOOQie

120

B.«JPUT.

Sub-tribes.

Chandra bansi.
8ombansi.

Septs.

, *—

Karnwdr.

Khdti.

Kinwdr.

Kulchulid.

Kulharid.

Kurminid.

Maul war.
Nikumbh.
Nimundih.
Pamdr.

Parihar.

Raghu bansi.
Rdhtaur.

Raksdin.

Rdnd.

Ranauni.

Sdngir.

Samid.

Simait.

Simid.

Sisodhid.

Somwdr.

Sukalnaki.

Sukarbdr.

Surkhi.

Surwdr.

Tarwdr.

Tilautd.

T ongar.

Ujain.

Bais.

Banaudhid.

Barndr.

Budh bansi.
Damarwdr.

Dangar.

Eh-Ar.

Gahlaut.

Kailwdr.

Kapur.

Kausik.

Kusbansi.

Mahraur. 1

Narauni.

Nauthni or Lautni.
Nisdn.

Oh-Ar.

Sabamid.

Sakarwdr.

Sengar.

Subansi.

Sulankhi.

Tekha.

Tetid.

Chaudhrid.

Mahto.

Mali.

Agnikul.

Bhojpurid.

Jadubansi.

In Chota Nagpur—

Mai we or Mar-Rdjput.

i Besfiin, Chaubh&n, and Mahranr cannot intermarry, being supposed to
be descended from the same ancestor.

Digitized by {jOOQie

RAJPUT.

121

Sub-tribes. Septs.

In Bardtcan Division —

Balgori.

Baradai.

Mulki.

The following septs are oommon to all the sub- tribes of XUjputs
in Behar

Ahir-Piik.

Ataii.

Athral.

B&chhil.

Ban&mpur.

Ban&phar.

Bardhii.

Bardii.

Barhwatii.

Bamii.

Basbarii.

Basharii.

Beru&r.

Bhadanii.

Shalesult&n.

Bhand&ri.

Bharchuihi.

Bhatg&ini.

Bhora.

Bhirthi.

Bichi la.

Bijhunii.

Binrii.

Bisokii.

Bundeli.

Chakw&n.

Chalhuk.

Dh&n.

Dhaul.

Dhekhi.

Dhor.

Dikshit.

Donwir.

Dorow&r.

Durgbansi.

Giigw&r.

Gdin.

Gajkesar.

Gandhaurii.

Ganhwarii.

Gargbansi.

Garhw&r .

Gaudhanii.

Gaul&ni.

Gaura.

Gehuani.

Hiri.

Huddi.

d&dan.

d&daw&r.

Jadubansi.

Kachnarii.

Kakir.

Kilhans.

Kimar.

Kanakw&r.

Kandwir.

Karangarhyi.

Karcholii.

Karjhulii.

Karmwir.

Karsi.

Kh&nni.

Kharbahii.

Kbit.

Khechar.

Korwir.

Kuchhaini.

Kuki.

Kukurbans.

Kundail.

Kusbhab&ni.

Lahtaur.

L&hulii.

L&kat.

Lohtamii.

Lukum.

Madhw&l.

Mahu&r.

M&ndi&r.

Maralbai.

Marhw&r.

Mari&r.

Maunachh.

Maunas.

Mehri.

Mendru.

N&gbansi.

Nimri.

Pachhanii.

Pachtarii.

Pailwir.

P&lki.

Phetii.

Pundul.

Purubansi.

Rachhu&ni.

Raikwir.

R&jkuar.

Raiwir.

ReKhaur.

Raksel.

Rankwir.

Rorah.

Sankarw&r.

Segul.

Sihogii.

Silewir.

Sindurii.

Singh inii.

Sirmaur.

Sirnet.

Sisonii.

Sombansi.

Sukulbans.

Surnair.

Taii.

Timir.

Tannin.

Taunr.

Tendun.

Tiir.

Tilakchandi.

Ulit.

Digitized by LjOOQle

122

RAJPUT.

The Bijputs also use the Brahmanioal golrat or sections, of
which the following are generally found in the oaate : —

Bai&ghrapad. Kdsyapa.

B&tsya. Kausika.

Bharadw&ja. N&g.

Parasara.

Prasidha.

S&ndilya.

Mu.

Title Sinha.

Sab-castes. Sections.

D&in& or Chau&n.

Baind. NiL

S&r.

B&gh&i or B&gh&l-

Rdjbanti.
Title : — M&hato.

Sub-caste*.

Sections.

Angrok or Angwdr.

Chapwdr.

Sikharid.

Sukulkard.

Bar-Gohri \
Majhal-Turiya > In LohardagA.
Berrd-Rajwdr ;

Bhogtd.

ChSpS.

Chirra, squirrel.

Dorih&r-jogi.

Karhar, a fruit.

K&syapa.

Katw&r.

Kharakw&r.

Lathaur.

Lohar&tengi.

Majhiya.

Marrik.

Matwdrd.

Ndg, cobra.
Rikhi.

Sankwd.

Singh.

Digitized by ^.oosle

RAUTIA.

123

$lautta, Baut.

Titles:— BarSik, Gaunjhu, Kotw&r.

Sub-caste. Sections ( parts or got).

1. Bar-Gohri. (a) Totemietic—

2. Chhot-Gohri. Aind, the eel.

Karsul.

K&shib, tortoise.

KSsi, & kind of grass ( Saccharum
spontaneum f).

K&toSr or Garur, vulture.

Kharak, sword.

* KhariS* blade of grass:

KoyS, the wild dog.

Manjar, cat.

NSg, snake.

Rukhii squirrel
Sanwani.

Tfingi, an axe.

(6) Eponymous —

BSsudeo.

Chandramani.

dogi.

KumSr.

MSnjhi.

SSndilya.

Siva.

Baghel.

KanthwSr.

KharakwSr.

(d) Uncertain —

Chatgohri.

Kabar.

Kherkoar.

Kum.

Kundil.

Lachh.

LSthaur.

Suran.

Digitized by {jOOQie

124

8ADG0P.

Satgop, C/idsd.

Titles Bdkundi, Biswds, Dds, Ghosh, Konr, Neogy, Pdl,
Sarkdr, Sur.

Sub-castes.

Paschim Kuliya.
Purbba Kuliyi

Sections.

(Of Paschim Kuliyd.)
Alamydn.
Kdsyapa.
Maudgalya.
Sdndilya.

Htpbrgamoub Divisions.

(а) Of the Paschim Kuliyi sub-caste.

Kulin (Bh&lki, Kdnkshe, Prahar4j, Siur).

Somaj.

Pratihdr (Bangram and Gogrdm).

Maulik.

(б) Of the Purbba Kuliyi sub-caste in Midnapur,

Kulin (Biswds, Neogi, Sur).

Maulik.

Konr-Gop, who take their wives from other Sadgops,
but give their daughters only in their own group.

§dnl;hari, Sankhakur, Sankhabanik.

Titles:— Bandhu, Bhadra, Chandra, Das, Datta, Dhar, Kar,
Kundu, Ndg, Nandi, Sen, Sur.

Sab-castes.

Sections.

Bara-Bhdgiya or Bikrampur
Sdnkharf.

Chota-Bhagiya or Sunargaon
San khan.

Alyamdn.

Brahmarishi.

Gautama.

Gdrgya.

Kdsyapa.

Madhukulya.

Mobrishya.

Pardsara.

Sdndilya.

Digitized by {jOOQie

S ANTAL.

126

Gdont&r, Kharw&r or Snfd-Hor.

Titles:— Bund, Mandai, Mdnjhi, Pradhdn, Sarddr.
Sub-tribes:— Deswd I i Santdl, Kharwdr orSafa-Hor.

Septs.

Bdski

Bed i yd (sheep P)
Besrd, hawk ...

Sub-septs.

Chon re

Hansda, Hasdak,
goose.

Nil.

Bundra.

Kahu, crow.

Kdrd, buffalo.

Nij.

Sddd.

Sibala.

Son.

.Sung.

Nil.

Barwdr.

Chilbindhd, eagle-slayer.

Jihu, a bird,
wild I Kerwar.

< Mdnjhi-Khil.

Nidki-Khil.

Nij.

Roh-Lutur, ear-pieroed.

Sddd.

('Ddntela, so celled from their
breeding pigs with very large
tusks for sacrificial purposes.
Gud, areoa nut.

Hemrom, Hembaram, betel^J

P 8 ^* I Laher.

Ndikd-Khil.

Nij.

Roh-Lutur, ear-pieroed.

LUh.

Abar.

Ah.

Kachud, tortoise.

Ldt, bake meat in a leaf-platter.
Kisku ... •••< Ndg, cobra.

' Nij.

Roh-Lutur.

Sddd.

Soma I, deer.

Digitized by

Google

126

8ANTAL.

Septa.

Mdmdl, grass

Sab-septa.

rBuru-birit, of the hills.
I Kekra, crab.

| Laher.

> Mdnjhi-Khil.

' Niaki-Khil.

N|j-

Roht, pdtyaun tree.
Sddd.

Murmu, nilgai

Bitdl.

Boar, fish.

Chopedr.

Qdnr, fort.

Handi, earthen vessel.
•< Muro.

Nij.

Sddd.

Sangda.

Sikiyd, a ohain.
ITikkd.

Paurid or Paulid

Nil.

Saren, the
Pleiades.

constellation

Barchi, spearmen.

Hdt.

dogi.

Ldt.

Mdl.

Mundu or Badar, a dense jungle.
Nij.

Sdnkh, oonch shell.

Sidup or Siduk, a bundle of
straw.

LTurku.

Tudu

'Agarid, charcoal-burners.

Chigi, Chiki, impale.

Ddntela, breed pigs with very
large tusks for saorificial pur-
poses.

Ldt, bake meat in a leaf-platter.
Manjhi-Khil.

Naiki-Khil.

Nij.

Roh-Lutur, ear-pierced.

Sddd.

Sung.

Digitized by

Google

S ANTAL.

127

Septs. Sub-septs.

Adeb.

Aind. a kind of eel.

Bansdeo.

Srdmk, Srivaka.

Sub-oaste.

Sections.

Nil.

Adyeb.
Ananta.
Machli, fish.
S4ndilya.

garaogt.

Sub-oaste.

Sections.

Xfil. Kastuw&l.

Sogani.

Kodar.

Pdtni.

Bhainsfi.

Chaunri.

Soni.

Gadiyfi.

Dosi.

Bakliwil.

Koteri.

P&todi.

P&ndrd.

Sdh.

Barj&tya.

Bii^ia.

Tariyfi.

P&priw&l.

Chariw&l.

J&njhri.

Pah&rifi.

Digitized by ^.oosle

128

SAWfAKAB.

SavnaJmr, Se/>rd, Sarna-Kamar.

Title*:—

Sub-castes. Sections.

Brahma ndesi. Bharadwdja.

Dakhin-Rdrhi. Kdsyap.

Khatangi. Sabanta-Rishi.

Uttar-Rarhi. Sdndilya.

Sarishi.

§abrtr, Sabar, Sour, Sar, Sayar , Suir, Siciri.

Sub-tribes.

Bendkar.
dharua.
Pall i.
Parird.

Septs.

(«) Totemistic —

Kdsibak, heron.
Sdlmdchh, fish.

(b) Eponymous—

Gargarishi.

Sdndilya.

$hcr])il-£3hoti& of Nepal, Kham, Saldkha, Nag-Chhong Shaksnng.

Bui, Thar or Septs.

Chah-ba.

Dong-ba.

ding-ba.

Minag-pd.

'Bhindsd, S. Bindsa, destroyed ; occupier of a
deserted village.

Goleg-pd, Go, a head, and leg, good ; the peaceful.
Manding, Man, medioine ; a practiser of medicine.
Pang-Karmo, Pang, pasture, and Karmo, white ;
Nah-pd ...•< a dweller on pasture table lands.

Sdldk-khd, a merchant carrying on trade.
Tag-tog-pd, Tag or brag, a rook; a dweller on
cliffs.

Tsegkhim-pd, Tseg, a wall, and Ehim, a house ; .
L a dweller in stone or walled house.

Non-pa.

Shyang-ba.

Sser-Gomba.

Sser-Lungchan.

Sserpa.

Sser-Phen-zangnd.

Weli-ba.

Digitized by LjOOQLe

SONAR.

120

§o tutor, Tui in, Rangdharii , Zargar.

Titles Chaudhri, Poddir, Sihu.

Sab-castes.

Sections.

Ajodhyibisi.

Ainii.

danakpuri.

Ajodhyipuri.

Aminipur.

Josiim.

Bais.

Anril.

Karbhaii.

Bhojpurii.

As war i a.

Kastuir.

Gaur.

Biguan.

Kisi.

Kamarkalla.

Barmiit.

Kisyab.

Kanaujia.

Bami.

Katalpuri.

Main.

Bathuet.

Kokarsi.

Oria.

Belhi.

Kothidomar.

Bhaunrijpuri.

Lohatii.

Bhekh.

Machhilhi.

Bibarhii.

Machi.

Bihiri.

Makundpuri.

Bilar.

Marich-bhuswat.

Bilaurii.

Marj-bhuswal.

Borhi.

Mirchwan.

Chalhaki.

Musamii.

Chauswir.

Noinjori.

Ch ithi.

Pachpikar.

Chonrhi.

Pariin.

Dinrsurii.

Prohi-Kerauti.

Dhaka ichhi.

Rijgrihl.

Dhaundrii.

Rimpuri.

Dubaithii.

Rautar.

Dumrahar.

Saharwir.

Fatehpuri.

Sakaddi.

Ganesii.

Samundar-Khora.

Ganet.

Siiaichii.

Garahii.

Simar.

Gehani.

Sisaundii.

Ghiohaddi.

Sochari.

Hamdibidi.

Soncheri.

Hanumin.

Sonpurii.

Hardiwil.

Sultanpurii.

dakhalpurii.

Tejanii.

Jamilpuri.

Telihi.

§ttbarmibanik, Ban id, Banika, Sarnabanik, Sonurbaniu.

Titles:— Adhya, Baril, Barddhan, Chandra, Din, Dis,
Datta, De, Dhar, Lihi, Mallik, Mandal, Nandi,
Nith, Pil, Poddar, Rii, Sen, Sil, Sinha.

Sub-castes. Sections.

Bangaja. Aliman.

Dakhin-Rarhi. Bharadwija.

Uttar-Rarhi. Brahma-Rishi.

Saptagrami or Nadiya. Gautama.

Digitized by 1^.00 Qle

130

8UBAB5ABANIK.

Sub-castes.

Hypergamotts groups —

Kulin.

Maulik.

Sections.

Kasyapa.

Madhukulya.

Maudgalya.

N&grishi.

Parksara.

Sabama.

S&nditya.

Sureswari.

Vyisa.

Titles : — Am Ay at, Beherd, Dehuri.
8nb-c«stes. Sections.

Bara-Sudh&. Nil.

S&no or Kabitkonii SudhS.

Paila-Sudhci.

Butk^-Sudhd.

§ubra, Ghidam-Kayasth.

Titles Bhand&ri, Shikd&r.

Sub-caste.

Sections.

None.

§ukli.

Alimm&n.

Maudgalya

Vasishtha.

Snb-castes.

Sections.

Barabhciiy&.

Alyam&n.

B£hattarghari.

K4syapa.

Dasasai.

Sindilya.

§lttOT, Eunri, Suri, Sundi, Saundika, Shaha, Chalita-Sau.

Titles :— In Bengal— Bhakta, Bhuiyd, Chaudhri, D6s, Deori,
Duryodhan, Kirttan, Majumd&r, Mandal,
Nirbhaya, Podd&r, Pradhdn, R£i.

In Behar— Bhand&ri, Chaudhri, Ul, Mandar, M6njhi,
Modi, Moh&sib, Saho.

Sub-castes.

In Bankura—
Mand&rane.
Singhazari.
Jaibele.
Dholo.

Sections.

Kasyapa.

Digitized by LjOOQle

SUN EL

131

Sab* castes.

In Bardrnn and Murshedabad —

Section!.

Sau or Chalita-Sau {R|rhJ dra *

Sundi .. fBich, distaiers.

IPalasram.

Chatur6sr&m or Chaturthan, vegetable-sellers.
Barnakule.

Al&dasi.

B&mr&si.

G&garish.

Sindilya.

In Maldah —
Mani.

Shirashina.

Jogidasi.

Duarbandha.

In Eastern Bengal—

R4rhi.

Banga.
Banger Rdrhi
Rdrher R&rhi

B&rendra ...|
Majlishi.

; Phul.

Kul.

AichS.

Panchsam&j.
Mahendra Khy&ni.
_Maugh&.

In Tipperah —

Rarhi, PanchasiS.
Barendra ...

In Noakhali —

R4rhi ... {p^
Birendra ... {^j

In Santdl Pargands —

Bich.

B&rendra.

Chaturthan.

Paripdl.

Kulsunri.

In Monghyr —

Sagahut.

Biydhut.

Gaunjhu.

Alamy&n.

Aliman.

Gautama.

Kdsyapa.

Maudgalya.

G&grish.

Andrish.

Madrish.

S&ndilya.

9 a

Digitized by t^oosle

132

SUNBI.

Sub-castes.

In Bhagalpur—
Kulsunri.
Ganjwar.
Dhukankord.
Barpdrd.
Sagdhut.
Biydhut.
Bitwdr.
Maghaiyd.
Bangld.

Dare hud.
Purbiya.
Sikhoria.

In Tirhul—
Maghaiyd.
Sagahut.
Biydhut.
Darchud.
Kalwdr.
Sokirid.
Chaurthan.

In Patna—
Biyahut.
Sagahut.
Khajkalia.
Bishtwar.
Bhangera.

In Manbhum —
Biyahut.
Lakargarhd.
Ariydr.
Maghaiyd.
Sikhariyd.
Chaturthan.
Sagahut.
Paripdl.
Holongwdr.

Sections.

Of the

Bharwe.

Mahdset.

Bichhu.

Mahton.

Bidr.

Mandar.

Chaudhri.

Marar.

Dobar.

Mehran.

Gdin.

Ndik.

Gdrd.

Panjidra

Garain.

Pardhdn.

Hdthi.

Parihdr.

Kapri.

Purbe.

Kdrak.

Rdut.

Kdsyapa.

Sadd.

Khdn.

Satrd.

Khdrgd.

fKdmti.

| Mandar.
Kulsunri sub-caste < Mdnjhi.

I Mehtar.
l_Sahu.

Kasyapa.

'Andrishi, a rope of untanned
hide, with which the yoke is
fastened to the plough.

Kdch, crab.

Madrishi, honey-bee.

Bandrisi, fish.

Ndgrishi, snake.

Sdndil or Sdnrishi, a bull.
The members of the section do
not castrate their own cattle,
but purchase bullocks and
L sell their own bulls.

Of the Paripdl j
sub-caste. ^

Digitized by

Google

•SUNTJ.WAB.

133

§umt-to£r, Sowed)-

Than or septs,

Brdhmilch£. P4rg&ch&'.

Chh&p&tich£. Rahp&chi.

Durbich&. Rujichi.

Jeshkuchd. Shush ichd.

despuchi. Thholdchd.

dijicha. Tholochd.

direl. Thumuchd.

K&tichl. Wangdehchi.

Khyongpotichd. Yaktachd.

Kintichd. Yeti.

Kyahbohch&.

Liokichi.

Surahii#, Surah/ d t Sorahaiyd , KaheaUMafluh.

Titles dal Chhatri, Marar.

Section.

K&syapa.

§Utfitbhitr, Chhutdr.

Titles:— Datta, De, Kar, Mistri, Kundu, PSI.

Sub-castes.

Sections.

Akrur-Paramananda '
Chaturan-Kh&n
Mdn-Gauringa
Gopal-Karikar

In Murshedabad.

Ket-Chhutar

Patura-Chhutar

Nagare-Chhutar

Bhar-Chhutar

! In the Sant&l
Pargan&s.

Alamrishi.

Alamy£n.

Kasyapa.

S&ndilya.

B&nrishi.

Kanakrishi.

Madhukulya.

Digitized by ^.oosle

184

SUTBADHAB.

Sub-castes.

ChhutAr
SAitghariA .
ChallisghariA
Sri

Srikrishna
SAini
DAturiA
Bani
Duman

Ari ,

MandarAnA
BardwAn
KharipArA
GoalabhuiyA 2

ChhutAr
ChurA-Kuti
KAturiA

Section*.

In Noakhali. 1

Western Bengal.

In Dacca.

i The Chhut&r appear to be carpenters properly so called, while the
other eight groups are endogamous subdivisions of the Chura-Kuti sub-caste

found in Dacca. ...

* Of late years these two groups have begun to intermarry.

‘Olltbuli, Tdmuli, Tdmli.

Titles : —

’ Chaudhri, Chail, Datta, De, Khur, PAI, PAnti, Rakshit,
| Sen, Singh (in Bengal ).

. Bhakat, Khili-wAIA, NAgbansi, Paiti (inBehar).

Sub-castes.

(а) In Bengali

SaptagrAmi or KusadAye.
BiyAllisgrAmi.

• ChauddagrAmi.
Bardhamani.

Ashtagrami or Kataki.

(б) In Behar —

‘MagahiyA.

TirhutiA.

BhojpuriA.

KanaujiA.

Kurram.

Karan.

Surya-dvija.

Sections.

(a) In Bengal —

KAsyapa.

Parasara.

SAndilya.

VyAsa.

(d) In Behar—
None.

Digitized by t^oosle

TANTI.

135

^Uti, Tantrabdya, Tantubdya , Tatwd.

Titles : — In Bengal — Bar4sh, Bas4k, Bh4dya-bau, Bit, Chand,
Chhagri (goat), Dal4l (broker), D4s, Datta, De, Gui,
Hansi, «Jachand4r (appraiser), Kar, Lu, Mandal,
Mesha (sheep), Muhkim (supervisor), Nandi, P4I,
Pr4m4nik, Sadhu, Sard4r, Sarkir, Si I.

In Behar— D4s, Mahto, Manjhi, Marar, Marik.

Sub-castes.

Sections.

In Bengal —

A/* fBardw4n4.

As w| m | Bapna.kui.

Agastya Rishi.

Alad4shi.

Acan 4 Madhyakul.
Xan+f 1 M4nd4ron4.
lanti. (^(jttarkul.

Alamy4n.

Attri-rishi.

Bararasi.

Balar4mi.

B4tsya.

Banga.

Bharadw4j.

Bar4-bh4giy4 or Jh4m-

Bisw4mitra.

p4niy4.

Brahm4rishi.

B4rendra.

Garga.rishi.

Chhota-bh4giy4 or K4yath-

Gautam.

T4nti.

uanar4shi.

K4ture.

K4syapa.

Kor4.

Kuly4 Rishi.

Kshir.

Madhukulya.

Madhukari.

Par4sara.

Magi.

S4ndilya.

Mari4li.

S4bama.

Nir.

Vy4sa.

P4ttar.

Purandari.

Purbbakul.

Rarhi.

Uddhabi.

In Bekar—
Baiswara.
Banaudhia.

Cham4rtaii.

Chamar.

Hindu4.

Jaiswar.

Kasyab.

Kah4r.

Kanaujia.

Tirhutia.

(Jttarha.

In Orissa —
M4tibans-T4nti.
G4l4-T4nti.
Hansi-Tanti.

Digitized by ^.oosLe

136

TELI.

'^Tdi, Tili , Chakri , Garai, Krtlu, Iiausan , Tailakar, Taili, Tailika,

Tail- Pal.

Titles : — In Bengal— Chaudhri, De, Dhabal, Kundu, Koleman,
Mandal, Masanta, Nandi. Pdl, Pardmdnik,
Parihara, Sddkhdn, Shdhd, Sit.

In Behar — Behara, Chaudhri. Dafdddr, Gorai. Kapri.

Ndik, Podddr, Sdhu, Shdhd, Tdlukddr.

Snb-csstes. Sections.

Aliman.

Chandrarishi.

Kdchim.

Kalmi.

Kdsyap.

Madhukulya.

In Bengal —

Anwarpuri. Maudgalya.

Bdrendra. Bikrampur. Ndg.

Chandradwip. Niskalanka.

Gangabisayi. Niydrishi.

Subarnabisayi. Sdndilya.

T ulatia.

In Pabna —

Barapatti. Sindhurishi.

Chhotapatti.

Ddspdra.

Govindpurid.

BhunjdTeli.

Dwddas. Bdrahazdri.

Bardwand.

Chhagulid.

Mdndarand.

Maureswari.

Singhazari.

Ekddas. Chinpurid.

Haludbond.

Fatehsing. Manoharshdhi.

Swarupsing.

Gdchhud or GhandTeli.

Kalu. Desle.

Mdsle.

Pishle.

Kutabpuri.

Maghad Khandi.

Rdrhi.

Saptagrdmi.

Senbhumid.

Sikharid or Sindurtopd.

Digitized by LjOOQLe

TELL

137

Sub-caates. Ban or sections.

In Oiista—

Abhir&m.

E k&dciSi
Gdudi.

Haldi&.

Kalu.

Tulatia.

In Behar —

In Shahabad —

Araiyci.

Demah£.

Barhdrici.

Dhobahd.

Bi&hut.

Jhagardhd.

Desi.

Hermanid.

Janakpuri.

Jaunpuri.

Kanaujid.

Khuskhelia.

Lathaur.

Rath -charh -bagh -marwl

Maghaiyci.

Sahu.

Naik.

Boria.

H&rpatii ‘plough-owner.’
Khargpur.

Musipur.

Telhari.

Tulsi.

Kapri.

Gdim.

Garain.

IndrabSrfi.

Mahciseth.

Bhusiwar.

Kapri.

Pata-Ratnauli.

Mihtar.

L&lg&mia.

Mihtar.

Pata-Ratnauli.

Teligamia.

Malik.

Mandar.

Mahto.

Masnath.

Sarwaria.

TirhutiS.

Turkia.

Panjiar.

Sangwe.

Tharmait.

Digitized by {jOOQie

138

TEL1.

Sub-castes.
In Chola Nagpur—
Dakhini.

Haldia.

Hiapela.

Kanaujia.

Maghaya.

Mathuria.

Sections.

In Lohardagi—

Kdrak.

Kdsyapa.

Pdndidin.

In Singbhum—

Ndgasya.

Pakhichdtd.
Barharoa, a fruit.
Kachud, tortoise.
Kansi, a kind of grass.
Ndg, cobra.

Pandki, dove.

Eypergamous groups in Bengal —

Pardmdnik.

Koleman or Kalu.

Titles : — Barwdik, Khdn, Mahto, Rdi.

Sub-tribes.

In Behar—

Rautdr.

Gaurihdr.

Marichwdr.

Xhawdsiyd. including —
Babhan-Khawdsiya.
Donreha-Khawdsiyd.
Dhot i ya-Kh awdsi y d.
Khatkala.

Bantar, including —

D h el ph orwd-Banta r.
Kath Katwd-Bantar.
Bot.

Batewdr.

In Nepal —

Chitwanid or Chitaunid.
Bo.wadhiya.

K.cbila.

Iswajitauni.

Septs.

Of Thdrus ,
in general.

Chaudhri.

Dahait.

Dds.

Gauro.

Guro.

Kdji.

Khatait.

Khojwdr.

Mahaut.

Mahto.

Patwdri.

Rdi.

Raut.

Of the Rau-j
tdr sub-i
tribe. )

Banth.

Bhdnr.

Chautarid.

Chitaunihd . 1

Dahait.

1 They are notorious for charms and spells.

Digitized by ^.oosle

THABU.

139

Sub-tribes.

In Nepal — concluded.
Naua.

PurbiyS.

Of the Rau-
tar sub-j
tribe— con-
cluded.

Septs.
Dangwaria.
Danrehd or Gaunh4.
Donw&r.

Gaharbciri.

Gaharw&r.

Gauro.

Kachhriyd. 1

K4ji.*

Kanphatd.

KathariA.

Khon.

Kochi 14.

Konhar.

Lampochhd.

Mahto.*

Majhiaur.
Mardania, barber.
Nawalpuria . 1
Ojhaiya.
Patwari.*

Rai.

Senth4.

, Sokhait.

1 They are notorious for charms and spells.

* These groups are said to have recently become endogamous.

8ub- tribes.

Nil.

‘tLippCtillT, Tripri, Mrung.

Septs.

Afang.

Aialong.

Fadung.

Gaibing.

Garjang.

Harbang.

Husoi.

dumdtya.

Kdkulu.

Kali.

Keoya.

Mising.

Mongbai.

Naithung.

Nowatti4.

Osui.

Puran.

R icing.

T ungbai.

Digitized by ^.oosle

14D

TIYAB.

ClMf, Tiar, Tior, Rdjbansi, Machhud.

Titles: — Chaudhri, Chhariddr, Malldh, Manjhan, Marar,

Mukhfar.

Sab-castes. Sections.

Rdjbansi or Tilak Dds. Itbdl or Itbdr.

Surajbansi. Kdsyapa.

Nal Tiyar. Jai Singh.

Found by Buchanan in Bhagalpur —

Bamanjagya.

Govariyd.

Hypergamous Divisions —

Pradhdn.

Pardmdnik.

Gana.

‘Cliri, Tori.

Sab-castes.

Turi or Kisdn-Turi.
Or.

Dom.

Domrd.

Sections.

(a) Totemistio —

Bar, Ficus Indica.
Charhad, tiger.
Hansdd, wild goose.
Hastaddd, eel.

Induar, a kind of eel.
daridr, lizard.

Kachhud, tortoise.
Kerketa, a kind of bird.
Samp, snake.

Saur, fish.

Sumat, deer.

Suren, a kind of fish.
Tirki, mouse.

Toppo, bird.

(4) Uncertain —

Bagehdr.

Charchdgiya.

Mddalwar.

Mai.

Panchbhaia.

Surinwdr.

Tamagandiyd.

Tirkuar.

Digitized by ^.oosle

VAISYA.

141

Titles Arya, Bhumisprik, Bhumijivi, Dwija, Panik,
Banik, Byanaharta, Uravya, Uruja.

Sub-caste.

Nil.

Sections.

Aliman.

Kasyapa.

K&tydyana.

Madhukuliya.

Sandilya.

^hlut.

Sub-tribes.

Septs

Ph4gu.

Lhorong.

Yamphu.

Of the Phagu
sub-tribe.

'Manem-ma.

Mangthog.

Okrabo.

Sing-yangma.

-I Songyokpa.
Thungong-hehta.
Thupra.
Yak-kyukpa.
JYoksuma.

Digitized by {jOOQie

Digitized by ^.oosle

APPENDIX II.

PROCEEDINGS OF CONFERENCE ON ETHNOGRAPHY OF
NORTHERN INDIA, HELD AT LAHORE ON THE
18th to 22hd MARCH 1885.

-prrernt :

Ms. D. C. J. Ibbetson,

Director of Public Instruction , Panjdb.

„ J. C. Nesfibld,

Inspector qf Schools , Oudh.

ff H. H. Rislbt,

On Special Duty, Bengal .

The members of the Conference met at Mr. Ibbetson’s office.
Mr. Risley explained that he had come to Lahore, with the
permission of the Government of Bengal, to consult Messrs. Ibbetson
and Nesfield in consequenoe of certain demi-official suggestions
received from Mr. FitzPatrick, Secretary to the Government of
India in the Home Department. He stated that the Government
of Bengal had deoided to make an exhaustive enquiry into the
oastes and occupation of the people of these provinces, based upon
the statistics recorded in the census of 1881 , and had placed him
on special duty for two years for that purpose. He laid before the
meeting (t) a draft note setting fortn the objects to be aimed at
in the enquiry and the means to be adopted to obtain those objects,
consistently with giving the minimum of trouble to the regular
administrative staff; («) a set of ethnographic questions framed
so as to facilitate the collection of fresh data in a systematic form
through the agency of district officers, and of such private indivi-
duals as might be willing to give assistance in the matter. He
asked the other members to assist him with such criticism as their
experience of ethnographio enquiries might suggest. Messrs. .
Ibbetson and Nesfield, while ready and willing to assist to the best
of their ability in discussing the papers in question, felt unable,
without due leisure for consideration, to commit themselves to any
final opinion as to the form that would be best suited for adoption
in their respective provinces, should it eventually be decided to set
such an enquiry on foot in those provinces.

In the absence of precise official instructions as to their functions,
it appeared to the officers present that all they could usefully do
was to indicate, with as much completeness as the circumstances
under which they were called together admitted of, the direction
iu which ethnographic enquiries of the kind under description
might best be pursued by any Local Government which might

Digitized by {jOOQie

141

think it desirable to undertake them. With this view the members
of the Conference prepared a note on oertain difficult points of
ethnographic terminology, a series of general questions <w1nn1«.t^
to elicit the salient characteristics of the several castes, and a set
of special questions dealing with caste customs in greater detail,
to be used by those whom inclination might lead to pursue the
subject further. These papers form annexures A, B and C to these
proceedings. It would remain for the Local Governments and
Administrations, concerned to determine in what manner the sugges-
tionfi oontained in them should be u tiliz ed.

At the present stage of the proceedings, and while the data
have still to be collected, the members of the Conference did not
feel prepared to oonsider the form in which the final results should
be arranged and recorded.

Denzii, C. J. Ibbetson.
John C. Nesfield.

H. H. Risley.

Suggestions regarding some doubtful points of Ethnographic
nomenclature .

Much confusion is often caused by the indeterminate use of the
various terms applied to the divisions upon which sooiety in India
is based. It seems that some attempt to define more precisely the
nature of the groups to which these terms should respectively be
applied might usefully be made, and the following is set forth as
a suggestion.

The group organization oommonly follows one of two main
types — (1) the caste, (2) the tribe. The former may be defined as
the largest group based upon community of occupation ; the latter
as the largest group based upon real or fictitious community of
desoent, or upon common occupation of territory.

Within the caste we find the sub-caste , and within the sub-caste
the section . The sub-caste may be defined as the smallest endogamous
group, and the section as the largest exogamous group, within the
caste. No lower unit than the section need be regarded. The limits
of the oaste and sub-caste will occasionally be identical, there being
no smaller endogamous groups included under a common caste name
based on occupation.

Within the tribe we find many subdivisions. The smallest
endogamous group within the tribe may be called the sub-tribe ,
which, as before, will occasionally coincide with the tribe. The
largest exogamous group within the tribe may be called the sept ,
ana no lower unit than this need be considered. Divisions interme-
diate between the sub-tribe and sept may, where they exist, be
termed clans and sub-clans.

Digitized by {jOOQie

145

Some oases will ooour in whioh the two types will ran into e&oh
other, the caste based upon ocoupation being made up of tribes or
tribal fragments based upon community of desoent. In these oases
the terminology of eaoh type will be followed so far as the organiza-
tion stands upon the same Dasis as the type, and no further.

It might be explained that the Brahmanioal gotras have, in
many cases, been adopted by or imposed upon castes and tribes in
addition to their proper oaste or tribal divisions. In suoh oases the
gotras are not what is wanted : what is wanted is the organio divisions
and subdivisions of the oaste and tribe, not unusually oalled got by
the people themselves, as distinguished from gotra in the strict Brah-
manioal sense. Occasionally these organio divisions and the gotra*
are identical ; but where the latter are distinct from, and have been
superimposed upon, the former, the gotras run through the divisions,
the same division often, though not always, including several gotras %
while, on the other hand, the same gotra is found in several divisions.
The Brahmanioal gotras are chiefly used by the officiating priest at
marriage and the ceremony of sankalp , and are often unknown to
the people themselves without reference to their priests.

Denzil G. J. Ibbetson.
John 0. Nesfield.

H. H. BisLEt.

Ethnographic Questions.

General Series .

1. Write in English and vernacular the name of the

oaste with synonyms, if any, noting if any of these are used only by
outsiders.

2. Write in English and vernacular the names of the exogam-
ous subdivisions of the caste, if suoh subdivisions exist.

N.B . — By the term exogamous subdivision is meant a group
from within whioh its male members oannot take their wives.

3. Show the endogamous divisions of the caste, if such divisions
exist. If these divisions oonsist of groups of the subdivisions
mentioned in question 2, show the grouping. If they ore distin-
guished by separate names, write the names in English and
vemaoular.

N.B . — By the term endogamous division is meant a group
from outside of which its male members oannot take their wives,

4. State the limits within or beyond whioh marriage
prohibited, e.g., that a man must marry within the oaste, but must
not marry into his own or oertain other subdivisions, or within
certain degrees of relationship, or may not marry two sisters.

Digitized by {jOOQie

146

5. Name any prohibitions on inter-marriage based upon (a)
social status, ( b ) geographical or local position, (c) differences of
religions belief or practice, (d) differences or changes of occupation.

6. State the popular tradition, if any exists, as to the origin
of the caste, naming the oommon ancestor, if any, the part of the
country from which the oaste is supposed to have come, and the
approximate time of its emigration, as marked by the reign of any
particular king, or the occurrence of any historical event, together
with the number of generations supposed to have intervened.

7. Is the habit of the caste settled or wandering? Have they
any recognized head-quarters in the provinoe ? If wandering, over
what tract of oountry do they wander? Are their migrations
periodical or irregular, and what are the shape and material of their
dwellings P

8. Do they admit outsiders into the oaste ? If so, from what
classes, by what forms, and under what conditions ?

9. Is marriage infant or adult ? If the latter, is sexual license
before marriage reoognized or tolerated ?

10. Is (a) polygamy, ( b ) polyandry, permitted ; if so, under
what conditions and within what limits P In the case of polyandry,
must all the husbands be brothers?

11. What form of marriage ceremony is in ordinary use?
Name the forms and state the essential and binding portion of the
ceremony.

12. Is the remarriage of widows permitted? If so, is the
widow obliged or expected to marry her husband’s elder or younger
brother P If she does not marry a brother, within what limits may
she marry P What form of marriage ceremony is used, and what
is the essential and binding portion of it P

13. Under what circumstances is divoroe permitted, and by
what form is it effeoted P May wives who have been divorced marry
again?

14. Do the members of the caste follow the Hftidu or Maho-
medan law of inheritance, or a tribal custom of their own?

15. To what religion and to what sect within the religion do
the caste belong ? If Hindus, do they by preference worship any
special one of the regular Hindu deities, and are there any reasons
for this preference?

16. Name any minor gods or patron saints specially wor-
shipped by the caste. State wnat offerings are made, on what days
of the week, and what class of people receive them P Is the worship
of any of these gods or saints oonfined to women and children P

17. Do the caste employ Brahmans for religious and oeremo-
nial purposes P If so, are these Brahmans received on terms of
equality by other Brahmans P If they do not employ Brahmans,
what class of people serve them as priests P

18. Do the caste burn, bury, or expose their dead P If buried,
in what position ? Where are the bodies or ashes finally disposed
ofP

19. Are any ceremonies performed for the propitiation of (a)
ancestors in general, (6) childless ancestors, (c) men who have died

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a violent death ; and if so, of what nature and at what seasons? Is
the ceremony of sraddh performed or not P

20. Is the caste, or any of its subdivisions, named after any
animal, plant, weapon or implement P Do they show their reverence
for any suoh object either by speoial worship, or by abstaining from
killing, eating, cutting, burning, using, or naming it P

21. What do the caste believe to have been their original
occupation or group of occupations P To what extent have they or
any sections of them departed from itP Describe their present
occupation.

22. If they are agriculturists, state what position they usually
oocupy in the agricultural system, i.e., are they —

(1) Zamindars;

(2) Tenure-holders, specifying the kind of tenures they

hold;

(3) Oooupanoy or non-occupancy raiyats, stating whether

they have or claim any privileges in respect of

rent;

(4) Nomadic cultivators, specifying the mode of cultiva-

tion they follow ;

(5) Landless day-labourers, stating the manner in which

they are paid P

28. If their occupation is that of —

(a) Artizans, what is their industry, and in what special

material do they work, or abstain from working ;

(b) Hunters, do they catch game or vermin ;

and tortoises?

(d) Sweepers , do they remove night-soil or not P

24. Name any implement or mode of working which ie oharao-
teristio of the caste, and also note whether there is any form or detail
of their main occupation by abstaining from which they believe
themselves to be raised above others of the same craft P

25. Do they habitually prostitute their (1) unmarried, (2)
married women?

26. Which of the following articles of food do the caste eat or
abstain from eating : — flesh, wine, monkeys, beef, pork, the flesh of
cloven-footed or uucloven-footed animals, fowls, soaly or scaleless
fish, crocodiles, snakes, lizards, jackals, rats, other vermin, the
leavings of other people P Is there any speoial article of food their
abstaining from which tends in their opinion to raise them above
some other caste which does not abstain from it P

27. Name the lowest well-known oaste with which the
caste will —

(a) Eat pakki. I (c) Drink.

(b) Eat kachhi. | (cf) Smoke.

Name the highest well-known caste which will eat, etc. (as
above), with the caste.

10 a

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Sources of information. —Here should be noted the names, resi-
dence (village and thana), profession, caste, sub-caste, and section of
the persons who answered the question. If any of them are ghataks ,
genealogists, heads of caste panchayat , or occupy any hereditary
offioial position in relation to the oaste, the fact should be stated.
If the answers to the questions have been derived from any souroe
other than personal enquiry addressed to members of the caste
oonoemed, the source should be stated, and such references given as
may enable the officer in charge of the enquiry to test the correctness
of the answers.

Denzil 0. J. Ibbbtson.
John 0. Nbsfibld.

H. H. Bisley.

0 .

Ethnographic Questions.

Special Series .

INTRODUCTOBY REMARKS.

The following questions have been drawn up in order to suggest
lines of enquiry likely to prove interesting. They do not olaim to
be exhaustive, nor is it neoessary that all of them should be
answered. Some, for instanoe, will apply only to Mahomedans, others
only to Hindus, and others again only to aboriginal tribes. In
making use of them various forms of bias on the part of the
person questioned will have to be guarded against, such as —

(а) The wish to exalt his own caste or subdivision of his

caste at the expense of other castes.

(б) The tendency to give ideal or book explanations of

faot8.

Care must also be taken not to tire the persons questioned by
asking too many questions at a time and to check their statements
occasionally by asking for actual instances of any specially remark-
able custom. Questions should be put in as conorete a form as
possible, in order to avoid the danger of people assenting out of
laziness in order to save the labour of thinking.

It will be found in the case of many— perhaps of most — castes
that there is a primary division into what may be called sub-castes,
each of which is again divided into sections. Where several of these
sub-castes are present side by side in the looality, their names will
probably be given. But where all the local representatives of the
oaste belong to the same sub-oaste, there is a danger of the sub-oaste
name being taken for granted and only the sections being named.
Both groupings are required, the sub-castes being, if anything, the
more important of the two.

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I.— Constitution.

1. Origin and internal organization . — Write in English and
vernacular the name of the oaste, with synonyms, if any, giving
its derivation if known.

2. If the caste has more names than one, explain their meaning
and state whioh are used by the members of the caste, and which by
other people.

8. Are any distinctions between the synonyms based upon the
occupations of those to whom they are respectively applied, their
place of origin, habitat, religion, or the like?

4. Is there any name used only by members of the caste?

5. State in detail any tradition that may exist as to the origin
or foundation of the caste, the pl&oe from whioh they oame, and
their subsequent migrations.

6. Do they believe themselves indigenous in the distriot or to
have come from elsewhere ?

7. If from elsewhere, note any king’s reign or historical occur-
rence contemporary with their migration, and how many generations
are believed or ascertained from genealogical lists to have intervened.

8. * Is there any plaoe whioh they oonsider their head-quarters
in Bengal ?

9. Note particularly the name of the plaoe from whioh they
or their ancestors are believed to have come direot to their present
locality.

10. Are any pilgrimages undertaken by the oaste to plaoes
which purport to be tneir original habitat or serve to suggest its
looality?

11. Is there any plaoe in whioh the members of the oaste are
or should be buried ?

12. Do they draw their priests, barbers, or genealogists rfom
that plaoe ?

13. Do they traoe their descent from a first ancestor or ohief,
and does he appear to have actually existed or to have been an
eponymio personage invented to aooount for the existence of the
tribe ?

14. If any genealogical tree exists, traoe the desoent of the
founders of the existing subdivisions from the common anoestor. Is
there a shrine to him in the village or neighbourhood, and is it built
on a trick or stone brought from elsewhere ? If so, from where ?

15. Do they oonsider any other castes to have branohed off
from them, or that they and others have come from the same national
source P

16. Have they any tradition regarding changes of religion,
introduction of new ceremonies, eto. ?

17. Are there any local legends connecting them with any
monuments, suoh as old tombs, mounds, forts, sites of villages, otc.
in the distriot ?

18. Is any light thrown upon the former movements of the
tribe by the names of villages or by the existence of monumental
stones ? For instance, the Mundas of the Chota Nagpur plateau can
be traced to plaoes far distant from their present settlements by these

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plaoee bearing Mundari names and containing Mundari grave-stones,
which are now worshipped by low-caste Hindus.

19. Write in English and vemaoular the names of the
exogamous subdivisions of the caste, if such subdivisions exist.

N.B . — By the term exogamous subdivision is meant a group
from within which its male members oannot take their wives.

20. Write in English and vernacular the names of the endogam-
ous divisions of the caste, if such divisions exist. If these
divisions consist of groups of the subdivisions mentioned in question
19, show the grouping.

N.B .— By the term endogamous subdivision is meant a group
from outside of whioh its male members cannot take their wives.

21. In the caste of both classes of divisions and sections explain
the meaning of each name, and if the name denotes animals or edible
substances, state whether the members of the subdivision bearing
that name are prohibited from naming, eating, killing, outting,
burning or otherwise using the animal or substance denoted P

22. Gases may also occur in which the name of the sub-
division is the name of an instrument which its members are
prohibited from using; or conversely, where the caste is one of
occupation, of a particular instrument or mode of working to whioh
the members of the subdivision are hereditarily addicted.

23. Are particular subdivisions bound to observe or refrain
from particular actions, such as the eating or burning of certain
plants, the worshipping of certain trees, eto. ?

24. Do the names of the subdivisions correspond with those
of the subdivisions of any other caste, and if so, how is the corre-
spondence explained P

25. Have, for instance, the members of the lower caste done
service to the higher caste and adopted their subdivisions P

26. If so, is there any trace of their having had different sub-
divisions of their own, and are there any reasons for supposing that
these were aboriginal and were abandoned in favour of a Brahmani-
oal classification P

27. Have they any representative assembly or governing body P

28. What is it called?

29. How is it constituted P

30. What are its functions P

31. Who presides at its meetings P

32. How are its orders enforoed ?

33. Is there a permanent president P

34. If so, by what title is he called, and is the office here-
ditary P

35. If the hereditary president happens to be a minor, by
whom are his duties carried on P

36. In the case of the trading and artisan oastes the functions
of the panchayat of the caste are of special interest and should be
carefully ascertained, most of all where the occupation is followed by
members of distinot castes united in a sort of trades guild, in which
case the connexions and oases of confliot between the panchayats of
the caste and guild should be investigated

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37. Rule* of Intermarriage.— State the limits within or beyond
which marriage is prohibited, e.g., that a man must marry within the
oaste, hut must not marry into his own or certain other subdivisions
or within oertain degrees of relationship, or may not marry two sisters.

38. Give the formula (if any) defining the prohibited degrees
of relationship. .

39. Name any prohibitions on intermarriage based upon (a)
sooial status, (6) geographical or local position, (c) differences of
religious belief or practice, ( d) differences or changes of occupation.

40. How far are differences of religion or sect a bar to
marriage P

41. Can persons of different castes intermarry P

42. If so, of what castes, and by what form of marriage P

43. Note cases in which wives will be. reoeived from another
subdivision or oaste, but daughters will not be given in marriage to
members of that subdivision.

44. Is the distinction referred to in the last question based
mainly on sooial status or on what ?

45. Is there any formal oeremony of admitting the bride into
the husband’s house, village or family by payment, after a mimic
struggle, by eating together, or otherwise ?

40. How many wives are allowed ?

47. If more than one, is there any * head wife, and what are
her privileges ?

48. Do the wives live together, or do they have separate
dwellings P

49. Is oonoubinage permitted P

50. Is polyandry permitted ?

61. If so, how are the husbands selected P

52. Must they all be brothers ?

53. Are the women allowed much freedom before marriage P

54. Are they prostituted before marriage, or are some prosti-
tuted and others reserved for marriage P

55. In the case of a girl who has been prostituted, is any pay-
ment made to the parents or the community, or is any speoial feast
given by the bridegroom F

56. At what age may marriage take place P

57. Is an infant marriage voidable, if not actually consum-
mated P

58. Who arranges the marriage P

59. Are there professional marriage-brokers ?

60. Whose oonsent is necessary to the validity of marriage
(1) if both parties are minors, (2) if both are of full age P

61. Is there any freedom of choioe on the part of the persons
marrying P

62. Is any price paid (d) by the bridegroom’s family for the
bride, (6) by the bride’s family for the bridegroom P

63. How is such price determined P

64. .Does it or any part of it become the speoial property of

either bride or bridegroom, and does it devolve by any) particular
rule of succession P ' )

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65. What physical defects will be sufficient ground for the
annulment of a marriage which has actually taken plaoe P

66. State whether idiocy or lunacy, impotence or mutilation
are suoh sufficient grounds.

67. Is any distinction made if the party seeking annulment
knew of the defect at the time of the marriage, or if the defect has
arisen after the marriage was consummated P

68. Under what oiroumstanoes is divoroe permitted P

69. What form of divorce is in use P

70. May wives who have been divorced marry again P

71. How are the offspring of (1) first marriages, (2; marriages
of widows or divoroed persons, (3) illicit connexions between parents
of different tribes, oastes, or religions now olassed P

72. Do all inherit on the same terms, or are any excluded P

73. Do they follow the tribe and caste of the father or of the
mother, or are they known by an entirely new name P

74. Is there any distinction between them and others bom
into the tribe or caste in a more usual or legitimate manner P

75. Are there any cases in which members of one subdivision
cannot marry into another subdivision as being of oommon origin
with themselves P

76. Do illicit connexions ever entail a change of caste on either
of the parents P

77. Are there any caste or subdivisions of oastes the origin of
which is ascribed to connexions between members of two different
oastes P

78. Give particulars, and state the evidenoe on whioh the
tradition is based.

79. Is it admitted by the members of the caste or subdivision
in question P

80. May widows remarry P

81. If so, by what form of marriage ceremony P

82. Must the widow of an elder brother marry the younger
brother, and may the widow of a younger brother marry an elder
brother P

83. May the widow marry outside her husband’s family P

84. If so, has her husband’s brother a right to the oustody of
her ohildren, and does the same rule apply to both male and female
ohildren P

85. If she marries an outsider, what rights in her husband’s
property accrue to —

(1) The widow,

(2) Her ohildren by her first husband,

(3) Her husband’s brother P

86. If sho marries a brother, what rule of suooession applies to
her husband’s property, e g*, what right in it accrues to —

(1) The widow,

(2) The brother whom she marries,

(3) Her ohildren by her first husband,

(4) Her children by her seoond husband P

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87. Are ohildren begotten of the widow by the brother of the
deoeased considered to be the ohildren of her first or of her second
husband P

N.B. — In illustration of the last eight questions, it may be
noted that among the Jeswar Kuxmis the widow of an elder brother
usually marries a younger brother by the sagai form, but may marry
an outsider. If she marries the younger brother, she gets half of
her deceased husband’s property. If she marries an outsider, she
forfeits all olaim not only to her husband’s property, but to the
custody of her ohildren, except in the case of daughters, who stay
with her till of a marriageable age, when she is bound to bring
them baok to be married from her husband’s brother’s house. The
widow of a younger brother cannot marry an, elder brother.

88. Adoption. — Is it neoessary that the adopter should be
destitute of a son, a son’s son, and a son’s grandson P

89. Must he obtain the consent of his heirs P

90. Is a daughter’s son a bar to the right of adoption P

91. May a man adopt who has male issue, if such issue be
disqualified by any legal impediment (suoh as loss of caste) from
performing the exequial rites P

92. Can a man who had already adopted a son adopt another
during the lifetime of the first P

93. Can the following persons adopt —

(1) A bachelor,

(21 A man blind, impotent, or lame,

(8) A widower,

(4) An asoetio who has renounced the world P

94. Can a woman adopt P

95. State whether it is neoessary to the validity of an adoption
by a widow that she should adopt with the permission, written or
verbal, of her deoeased husband, or with the consent of his kindred.

96. Can a widow adopt a son as her own without thereby
making him a member of her late husband’s family P

97. Can she adopt a son as her own in addition to a son
adopted as the representative of her deceased husband P

98. In the event of the death of a son adopted by a widow
with the sanction of her husband, may the widow adopt another
person without permission of her husband to that effect P

99. May a man give in adoption —

(1) His only son,

(2) TTia eldest son,

(3) His brother P

100. Must the person adopted be less than any specifio age P

101. If so, up to what age may a person be adopted P

102. In the case of the higher castes, can a person be adopted
after tonsure or investiture with the sacred cord in his own family P

103. Can girls be adopted P

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104. Is there any rule by whioh it is required that the person
adopted should be related to the person adopting ?

105. If so, what relatives may be adopted P

106. Is any preference required to be shown to particular
relatives P

107. If so, enumerate them in order of preference.

108. Is it neoessary that the adopted son and his adoptive
father should be (1) of the same caste of tribe, (2) of the same
got P

109. Is there any rule prohibiting the adoption of the son of
a woman whom the adopter could not have married, suoh as his
sister’s son or his daughter’s son P

110. Does an adopted son retain his right to inherit from his
natural father P

111. Can he inherit from his natural father if the natural
father die without other sons P

112. Desoribe the rights of an adopted son to inherit from his
adoptive father.

113. What is the effect of the subsequent birth of natural
legitimate sons to the adoptive father P

1 14. Will the adopted son take equal shares with them P

115. When a son-in-law leaving his own family takes up his
residence permanently with his father-in-law as ghar jamai , what
will be the effect on the rights of such son-in-law to inherit (1) from
his father, (2) from his father-in-law.

116. Succession. — If a man die leaving a widow or widows,
a son or sons, a daughter or daughters, brothers, and other relatives,
upon whom will the inheritance devolve ?

117. If there be more sons than one, will they take equal
shares P

118. If the sons do not take equal shares, state upon what
principle the shares are regulated.

(1) Is any regard had to uterine desoentP Are the shares in

the inheritance distributed according to the number of
mothers P

(2) Is any regard had to the caste or tribe of the mothers, so

that the sons by a wife of a high oaste, or of the same
oaste, or tribe with the father take larger shares than
the sons by the wife of a low caste, or of a different
oaste or tribe P

(3) Is any regard had to the age of the sons, so that (1) the

eldest son, (2) the youngest son, would take a greater
or less share than his brethren P

119. Can a father in his lifetime nominate a particular son as
the fit person to take a larger share than his brethren after the
father’s deoease P

120. When an estate has been held jointly by a father and
his sons, and is distributed amongst them upon Ins decease, are
acquisitions made by the sons exempt from distribution ; or will
all the sons share in all the joint estate, moveable or immoveable,

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anoeetral or aoquired, whether or no any part of snob estate have been
acquired by any one or more of the sons, by gift or succession from
a maternal grandfather or father-in-law, or other relative through
a female P

121. Where there are male descendants who do not all stand
in the same degree of kindred to the deceased, and the persons through
whom the more remote are descended from him are dead, will the
nearer descendants exclude the more remote, or are the more remote
descendants entitled to succeed simultaneously with the nearer
descendants P

122. If in the oase stated in question 121 the more remote
descendants succeed simultaneously with the nearer descendants,
how is the estate to be divided ?

Is it to be divided in equal shares amongst all the heirs ; or is it
to be divided into suoh a number of equal shares as may correspond
with the number of the male lineal descendants of the deceased, who
either stood in the nearest degree of kindred to him at his decease, or,
having been of the like degree of kindred to him, died before him,
leaving male lineal descendants who survived him P

123. Where there is no son, but where the male lineal
descendants are all grandsons or all great-grandsons, will the estate
be divided equally amongst all suoh grandsons or great-grandsons,
as the case may be, or will the shares be allotted to the grandsons
proportionately to the shares which the sons would have taken had
they been living, or to the great-grandsons proportionately to the
shares which the grandsons would nave taken had they survived the
deceased P

124. Do the principles stated in the replies to questions 121 and
122 apply to every case of the distribution of an inheritance ; or is
there any distinction when collaterals inherit ; that is to say, does
a son or grandson always take the share his father or grandfather
would have taken, if such father or grandfather had survived the
deceased, whether or no the share descend lineally or through a
collateral relative ?

125. Does the inheritance successively devolve upon all male
lineal descendants, how low so ever ; or is there any degree fixed in
the descending line within which, if there be no male lineal descend-
ants, the inheritance will devolve on other relatives. If so, state
what that degree is P

126. If a man die leaving a widow or widows, and either
a daughter or daughters, or brother or their descendants, or uncles or
their descendants, or great-uncles or their descendants, but no male
lineal descendants, within three generations, upon whom will the
inheritance devolve ?

127. If the estate devolve upon the widow, define her interest
therein P

128. What rights has the widow to alienate by sale, gift,
mortgage, or bequest P

(1) Are there any special circumstances or expenses under,
or on aooount of, which alienation is permissible P
If so, what are these P

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(2) Is there any distinction in respect of moveable or im-

moveable, ancestral or acquired property, or in
respect of alienation to the kindred of the deceased
husband P

(3) Supposing alienation to be permissible, whose consent

is necessary to make it valid P

129. As regards the right of a Mahomedan widow to alienate,
is any distinction taken in respeot of her legal share P

130. If there be several widows, do they take in equal
shares P

131. Is any distinction made in respect of the rights of widows
who are not of the same family with their deoeased husband ?

132. Is there any distinction in the rights of widows based
upon the ciroomstanoe whether the husband was or was not associated
with his brethren P

133. What is the effect of unohastity upon the right of a
widow in respect of- the estate of her deoeased husband P

134. In the case of widows who are not Hindus, what is the
effect of their remarriage P

135. Under what circumstances are daughters entitled to
inherit P Are they exoluded by the sons or by ‘the widow, or by the
near male kindred of the deceased P If they are excluded by the
near male kindred, is there any fixed limit of relationship within
which such near kindred must stand towards the deoeased in order
to exclude his daughters P If so, how is the limit ascertained P If
it depends on descent from a common ancestor, state within how
many generations relatively to the deoeased suoh oommon ancestor
must oome.

136. Is there any distinction as to the rights of daughters to
inherit (1) the immoveable or anoestral, (2) the moveable or acquired,
property of their father P

137. (1) Under what oiroumstanoes are daughters entitled to

be maintained out of the estate of their deceased
father P

(2) What is the effect of (a) marriage, (6) residence in

a strange village, upon the right of the daughter
to inherit, or to be maintained P

(3) If a married daughter with her husband live with

the father up to his deoease, can the daughter
inherit P

(4) Can daughters who are married and barren, or

widowed, and without male issue, or mothers of
daughters only, inherit the father’s estate P

138. What is the nature of the interest taken by a daughter
in the property she inherits P Define her rights of alienation, if any,
by sale, gift, mortgage, or bequest.

139. After daughters, do daughters’ sons succeed P If so, is
the property equally divided amongst all the sons of several daughters,
or are the shares proportioned to the number of daughters who leave
sons?

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140. When a man dies leaving no male lineal descendants, no
widow, and no daughters or daughters’ sons, upon whom will the
inheritance successively devolve P

141. When the estate devolves upon the mother of the
deceased, what is the nature of the interest she aoquires P

142. Define her powers of alienation.

143. On the death of tbe mother, will the properly devolve on
the heirs of the son, or on her heirs P

144. When the property devolves on brethren, what, if any,
regard is paid (1) to uterine descent, (2) to association P Do uterine
associated brethren exclude all others P In what order suooeed —

( i) Unassociated brethren of the whole blood P
( it) Associated brethren of the half-blood P
(tit) Unassociated brethren of half-blood P

If a man die leaving a uterine brother separated and a half-
brother associated, how will these two inherit P

145. When a man dies leaving associated brethren and unasso-
ciated brethren, and the property devolves on his brethren, have the
associated brethren any preferential olaim to aoquired property,
vmoveable or immoveable property, or to anoestral moveable property P

146. In default of brethren, does the property devolve upon
their sons?

147. Does the property ever devolve upon sisters, or upon
sisters’ sons. If upon sisters’ sons, how are their shares computed P

148. Where a wife dies holding property in her own right, is
the husband entitled to suooeed to suoh property, or any part of it P

149. Can the son by a former marriage of a woman who
contracts a second marriage inherit from (1) his natural father, (2)
his stepfather P If from his stepfather, is her share equal to, or less
than that of, his stepfather’s own sons P

150. Is any distinction taken as regards the stepson (•) if he
be not bom till after the second marriage of his mother, (it) if the
stepfather in his lifetime assign him a share by deed P

151. Are stepsons entitled to be maintained by their step-
father P If so, till what age ?

152. Enumerate in the order of their succession the persons
entitled to the estate of a man who dies intestate leaving no relations.

153. If a person voluntarily retires from the world and becomes
a member of a religious order, what is the effect upon (i) his right
to retain his property, (it) his right to aoquire property by inherit-
ance P Upon whom will devolve property whioh he would have
inherited if he had not retired from the world P

154. State any rules reoognized by the caste governing the
succession to —

(а) Zamindaries.

(б) Service tenures.

155. In the oase of tribes practising polyandry, state carefully
the rules of inheritance, e.g. y does a man’s property devolve upon his
brother, his sister, or his sister’s son P

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156. System of Relationships. — Are any persona considered to
be relations besides those who are descended from a common ances-
tor P

157. Are all or any of the kindred of the wife considered to be
the relations of —

(1) the husband,

(2) the husband’s relatives or children ?

158. If so, state the persons who are relatives, with the names
of the relationships.

159. How are generations reokoned ?

160. Give a table of kindred with the looal names of the
generations up to the third degree in both the ascending and descend-
ing line.

161. By how many generations are the following persons said
to be related to the person whose relatives are to be reokoned P

(1) Brother.

(2) Father.

(3) Uncle.

(4) Cousin-german, ».e., unole’s son.

(5) Brother’s grandson.

(6) Great-grandson.

(7) Great-grandfather.

162. Fill in the following tables with the local names of the
relations.

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•Relations, through the Father, whether of man or

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Z) (1). — Relations , through the Wife, of a man.

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E ( 1 ).— Relations, through the Son , whether of man

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His wife. Daughter's son. Daughter's daughter.

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163. How is each, group spoken of collectively by a man and
by a woman P

164. Add any relationships not included in these groups for
which there are special names.

165. Is a great-uncle distinguished from a grandfather’s and
a parent’s oousin from a man’s own cousin P

166. Into what classes are relations distributed P

167. Specify each class and the relations included in it.

168. GKve the distinctions, if any —

( i ) between sapindas, sakulyas, samanodakas, bandhus,
and gotrajas.

! ii) between personal, paternal, and maternal kindred.
hi) between legal sharers and residuaries, near and
distant kindred, lineal and collateral relations.

169. State the various modes of addressing and speaking of
particular relatives, e.g ., how do men and women address and speak
of their husbands and wives respectively P

170. How does a man address and speak of his brother-in-

law P

171. Are there any cases in whioh names originally denoting
particular relationships are used in addressing or speaking of persons
not related in the manner the name denotes P e.g., a man sometimes
speaks of another man as his bhai, when in fact he merely means that
tne other is a member of his own caste.

172. Are genealogies oarefully kept P

173. Do they inolude the names of females P

174. Note any forms of adoptive relationships based upon .
friendship or on land (e.g., phulbahin and bhumbhai), and state what
consequences and obligations are annexed to them.

IL— Domestic Ceremonies.

175. Birth and Pregnancy . — Describe any ceremonies performed
during pregnancy, and state what effeot, if any, they are believed to
have upon the mother or child.

176. What posture is adopted in acoouohement P

177. Who attends on the mother (a) during her confinement,
( b ) after the confinement is over ?

178. What ceremonies are performed on the birth of a ohild P

179. Are the ordinary occupations of the father given up or
interrupted in any way in consequence of the birth of a child P

180. What reasons, if any, are assigned for such interruption P

181. Are there any special customs with reference to twins P

182. Adoption . — Describe the different ceremonies in use for
adoption.

183. Does the validity of the adoption depend upon the
performance of the customary oeremonyP

184. Does the status of the person adopted depend upon
the form of ceremony used P

185. If so, what is the effect of each of the different forms P

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186. Puberty or A dolescence.—Whzi oeremonies are performed
■when (a) a son, (b) a daughter, attains puberty P

187. In the oase of a son, is there any ceremony purporting to
admit him among the grown men of the caste P

188. Betrothal . — Describe the oeremony of betrothal.

189. What is considered the binding portion of the oeremony P

190. Is there any distinction between formalities after which
the betrothal is reversible and formalities whioh are absolutely
binding P

191. At what age does betrothal take place P

192. Whose consent is necessary ?

193. If a betrothal be annulled, is there any custom as to the
repayment of the expenses inourred ?

194. Marriage . — Describe in detail the various kinds of
marriage ceremonies in use, distinguishing between superior and
inferior kinds ?

195. What is considered to be the essential or binding part of
each kind of ceremony P

196. In the marriage oeremony is there any pretenoe of
capturing the bride, or does any part of the ceremony or of the previous
or subsequent proceedings suggest that marriage by capture was
formerly in vogue.

197. In the marriage ceremony is there any symbol of
a previous marriage to any deity, e.g.> is the bride first married to
a tree or to any natural object ?

198. Death and Burial.— Do the caste burn, bury, or expose
their dead ?

199. If buried, in what position P

200. Where are the bodies or ashes finally disposed of P

201. Desoribe the oeremonies performed at the burning or
burying of a corpse P

202. Are any oeremonies performed for the propitiation of {a)
ancestors in general, (b) childless ancestors, ( c ) men who have died
a violent death ; and if so, of what nature and at what seasons P

203. Describe the oeremony of sraddh , and state whether the
caste perform it or not P

204. Who officiates as priest at the funeral oeremonies and
repeats formuleB of prayer (mantras, etc.) P

205. In the oase of oastes which do not employ Brahmans it
should be enquired whether the sister’s son or other relative on
the female side officiates in the place of the Brahman.

206. Purification . — Are ceremonial purifications practised P

207. Are any persons at any time impure or unclean and
requiring purification, as after child-birth, during menstruation, after
funerals, eto. P

208. For how long does the ceremonial impurity last P

209. How are they purified P

III. — Religion.

210. Worship , Priests 9 and Temples. — To what religion, and to
what sect withiu tie religion, do the caste belong ?

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211. If Hindus, do they by preference worship any speoial one
of the regular Hindu deities, and are there any reasons for this
preference P

212. Have its members always professed that religion, or
were they converted to it en masse , or gradually ?

213. How did their conversion take place, and when — before
their migration to their present abode or after P

214. Are members ot the caste found in the neighbourhood
professing the tenets of different religions or sects P

215. Do they affect a peouliar saint or shrine P

216. State the names, origin, and attributes of the minor
village deities and local or patron saints whom they worship,
describing, if possible, the shape and aspect of the shrine, the
ceremonies observed in worship, the nature of the offerings made,
the times, days, or seasons when they are made, the caste and
subdivision of the officiating priests and of the persons who take
the offerings.

217. Are any of these deities peculiar to women and children P

218. State any indications of ancestor worship, snake or tree
worship, sun, moon, fire, or devil worship, which the religious
practice of the caste suggests.

219. Is there any special shrine to which pilgrimages are
made, and at what seasons P

220. Has any great religious teacher arisen in the caste P
Give his name and state his peculiar tenets.

221. Is the caste, though nominally belonging to one of the
main religions, excluded from any of the rites and ceremonies
practised by other castes belonging to the same denomination, and
is any specific reason assigned for this exclusion P

222. All cases of left-handed sect and worship of sexual
principles, orgies, etc., should be noted.

223. Have they any ceremony of admission into the religious
body corresponding to baptism or circumoision ?

224. All cases of Hindus and Mahomedans, or their women
and children, worshipping the same deities or saints, or frequenting
the same shrines, should be carefully noted.

225. Do the caste employ Brahmans for religious and oere-
monial purposes?

226. If so, to what oaste or section of Brahmans do they
belong, and are they reoeived on terms of equality by other
Brahmans P

227. If they do not employ Brahmans, what olass of people
serve them as priests P

228. Are there any family priests who perform ceremonial
functions not connected with any particular deity P

229. Are particular persons or clans set apart as priests P

230. Is the same person often both priest and chief P

231. Do they practice austerities, observe chastity, eto. ?

232. Is any speoial building set apart for worship P

238. Is it built in a particular position, as faoing the east,

etc.?

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234. Has it any special shape, and is it called by a special
nameP

235. Are idols kept there ?

236. What rites are performed P

237. Are all the rites public, or are any of the nature of
mysteries or orgies P

238. Sacrifice . — Is sacrifice offered, to what deities, and of
what animals P

239. May any one or only priests offer sacrifice P

240. Where is sacrifice offered P

241. After sacrifice, do the priests or worshippers consume or
remove the objects offered P

242. Are substitutes used in sacrifice, such as part of an
animal, an effigy or imitation P

243. Do worshippers sacrifice parts of themselves, such as
hair, nails, drops of blood, etc. P

244. Is there any tradition of men, women, or children having
been saorified in former times to any deity P

245. If so, name the deity, and state all you can learn about
the tradition.

246. Whence and in what manner was the victim obtained P

247. Enquire why the custom of human sacrifice was discon-
tinued, how long ago, and what was substituted in its place?

248. Festival s. — Give a list of the festivals observed, stating
the dates when each is celebrated.

249. What do they oonsist in — processions, games, dances,
banquets, eto.P

250. Which are at regular periods and which occasional P

251. Axe there annual religious festivals marking the months,
seasons, equinoxes, solstices, seed-time, first fruits, harvest, etc. P

252. Is there an annual feast of the dead P

253. To what extent does the oaste observe the great Hindu
festivals P

254. Is there any great festival observed by the caste, but not
observed by Hindus generally P

255. Are there festivals at which marriageable youths and
girls mix, and matches are made P

256. Are any festivals specially connected with sexual rela-
tions?

257. Is drunkenness common on these occasions, and is the
use of any particular intoxicating drink regarded as part of the
festival

258. Fetishism. — Do spirits or deities enter into or attach
themselves to objects, suoh as sticks, bones, ornaments, eto. ?

259. Are such objects kept sacred and believed to contain
supernatural power P

260. Axe blocks of wood, stones, eto., believed to be inhabited
by deities, and worshipped accordingly P

261. Worship of natural spirits , plants* and animals . — Are there
spirits especially attached to natural objects, such as rivers, springs,
wells, rocks, trees, animals, etc. ?

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262. How are they worshipped P

263. Are fields believed to be haunted, and by whom P

264. Are groves and woods favourite places of worship or
Sacrifice P

266. If so, explain what gods are worshipped there, and note
if the wood or grove is or is supposed to be part of a large forest
which has been cleared, a portion being left as a refuge for the
forest gods.

266. Are any beasts worshipped as godsP If so, describe
the mode of worship.

267. Ancestor worship. — Are the souls of ancestors worshipped
with prayers and sacrifices ?

268. Desoribe briefly the ceremony in vogue P

269. Is the supposed primitive ancestor of the oaste worshipped
under the form of, or in connexion with, some sacred animal, plant
or other object as a totem or clan deity P

270. Are animals sacrified at funerals ; if so, with what objeot P

271. Are any funeral offerings given, so that the souls of the
dead may become possessed of objects or their phantoms P

272. Are food, money, ornaments, etc., plaoed near the oorpse,
burnt or buried with it, or offered periodically at the place of burial P

273. Are the survivors in fear of the ghosts of the dead P

274. Do they attribute dreams to their influence, and do they
take any means to get rid of them, or keep them off P

275. Do ghosts of the dead haunt houses or burial-plaoes, and
if so in what forms ?

276. Does their doing so indicate that their bodies have not
been properly buried P

277. How are ghosts propitiated P

278. Are there several kinds of them; if so, state the names,
characteristics, and attributes of each P

279. Axe any days sacred to ancestors, and what is done on
these days P

280. Do the caste go to Gya or to any other well-known plaoe
of pilgrimage to perform the sraddh of their ancestors P

281. Totems .— Is the caste or any of its subdivisions named
after any animal, plant, weapon, or implement P

282. Do they show their reverenoe for any such objeot either
by special worship or by abstaining from killing, eating, cutting,
burning, using or naming it P

283. Are there any cases of the object which the oaste reverenoe
being tattooed or painted on the body, possibly in a very convention-
alised form, or of its representation being always oarried about on the
person?

284. If so, how do the members of the caste explain the
practice P

285. Do the women of the caste pay special reverenoe to oertain
trees, by veiling their faces before them as if in presence of an elder
relative, or worship them in the hope of getting children in the
belief that the spirit of the ancestor inhabits them P

286. Are any trees or plants used or worshipped at weddings
and similar ceremonies, and are children named after them P

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IV. —Superstitions.

287. Omens, etc. — Do any superstitions prevail as to luoky and
unlucky days, numbers, animals, places, houses, points of the oom-
p&88, roads, physical functions, such as sneezing, spitting, etc., natural
events, or calamities P

288. Are there any superstitions connected with stars, and may
they be got over by burying a picture or rude representation of the
star?

289. Is there any objection to crossing water under oertain
conditions P Is meeting a particular animal regarded as ominous,
and does the character of the omen depend upon the direction in
which the animal is seen P Are omens taken from aocidents, such as
stumbling, etc. P

290. Are there any peculiar customs as to wearing or abstaining
from wearing particular kinds of dress, jewels, ornaments, eto. ; as to
using particular kinds of oooking vessels ; or as to eating or growing
particular plants or drugs P

291. In the oase of plants, notioe whether the name of the
plant affected by the superstition corresponds with the name of a sub-
division of the tribe P

292. Are there any superstitions as to the naming of children,
e.g., are two names given, one for every-day purposes and one fbr
ceremonial use, or is a son whose elder brother has died given an
approbrious name P

293. Do these practices apply to girls as well as to boys P

294. Oaths and ordeals.— Are any forms of oath in oommon use,
and are they accompanied by any symbolio forms, such as swearing
on a tiger’s skin P

295. What oonsequenoes are supposed to be entailed by break-
ing an oath P

296. Are any ordeals in use, such as plunging into water, pass-
ing through fire, eating food under speoial conditions, eto. P

297. Are they used merely for the decision of personal disputes
or for questions affecting the community, suoh as the boundaries of
villages, etc. P

298. Magic and witchcraft. — Is the practice of magic arts
confined to special sorcerers, witches, eto. P

299. Are these priests, eto., connected with religion, or is there
jealousy or hostility between the priest and the sorcerer P

300. What are the functions of soroerers and witohes, and
how are they generally regarded P

301. Are there any supposed arts by whioh it can be deter-
mined whether a particular individual is a witch or sorcerer or
not?

302. Are spirits or demons oalled upon to give oracles, disclose
secrets, do good or harm P

303. Is demoniacal possession believed in, and what remedies
are resorted to in order to oure persons supposed to be possessed ?

304. Is suoh possession regarded as a valuable quality ; if so,
how is it aoquired ; is it oonfined to particular oastes or olans P

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305. Are dreams regarded P Do they give information of the
past and prophecy or omens for the future.

306. Are any special persons called upon to interpret them, and
is there any recognized system of interpretation P

307. Are they ascribed to visits or communications from spirits,
as, for instance, to persons recently deceased in the family of the
person who has the dream ?

308. Is there any mode of propitiating the spirits of persons
reoently dead so as to prevent them from causing dreams P

309. Is the effeot of the evil eye believed in P

310. To what is it attributed P

311. How is it obviated P

312. Are soroerers and witches supposed to act on their viotims
by objects belonging to them or intimately connected with them, suoh
as cut hair or nails, or by making effigies or piotures of them and
wounding the piotures in order that the viotims may be affected P

313. Is special oare therefore taken to destroy outtings of hair
or nails P

314. Is any kind of divination or astrology practised P

315. Who are its professors P

316. Describe the modes of divination and exorcism in use,
and state what class of persons are resorted to as exorcisers.

317. Is disease attributed to the influence of spirits P

318. How is the particular spirit at work deteoted and how
appeased?

Ceremonial Prohibition or Taboo .

319. Is any particular food, animal or vegetable forbidden,
though obtainable and wholesome P

320. Do the whole caste abstain from it, or only certain
families or individuals, or persons under some special ciroumstances P

321. Is the prohibition religious P

322. Is the animal or plant abstained from regarded as in any
way divine, as a tribe fetish, the incarnation of a local deity, or
personal guardian spirit or the soil of some ancestor P

323. Is it the animal or plant from which the caste or sub*
division derives its name P

324. Give any explanation that may be current of the prohibi-
tion in question.

325. Do any members of the caste object to eating with,
touching, speaking to, looking at, or calling by name other persons P

326. Do these prohibitions apply to persons of different rank,
occupation, or caste P

327. Is any particular caste held in peculiar abhorrenoe, and
if so, why P A good instance of what is meant is afforded by the fact
that the Dorns hold the Dhobis in special detestation. It is believed
that other low castes have similar eccentric prejudices.

328. Are women and children specially prohibited from doing
any particular religious acts, entering particular temples, performing
particular acts of worship, eto. P

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329. Do similar prohibitions apply between relations P And
speoially between relations by marriage, e.g., does the husband’s
father avoid the wife’s relations, eto. P

330. What appears to be the motive P

331. Is the person whose name may not be mentioned supposed
to be holier than the other P

332. Is there an idea of magioal harm, or is it merely a ques-
tion of social separation P

333. Are the names of chiefs, dead persons, eto., avoided in
conversation P

334. Are any speoial words or subjects considered improper ?

335. Are there any cases in which gods, persons, or subjects
whose mention by name is prohibited are spoken of under some
honorific title P

336. Agricultural Superstitions . — Mention any remarkable
superstitious beliefs connected with agriculture, such as the days on
which ploughing, sowing, reaping, etc., must be begun, intermitted,
or finished ; the periods within which a shower of rain is specially
lucky or unluoky ; the customary number of times agricultural opera-
tions should bb performed; the objects set up in the fields to avert
injury to the crops, to frighten away demons, etc. P

337. Is any propitiatory or quasi-religious oeremony observed
before the commencement or after the completion of any agricultural
operations, such as the sinking of a well, sowing, reaping, or the

338. What times and seasons are luofey or unlucky for the
commencement or completion of the various agricultural operations P

339. Are there any gods specially connected with particular
crops P

340. If any of these are peculiar to the caste, the fact should
be noted.

Y. — Social Customs.

341. Food and drink . — Which of the following articles of food
do the caste eat or abstain from eating flesh, wine, monkeys, beef,
pork, the flesh of cloven-footed or undoven-footed animals, fowls,
scaly or scaleless fish, crocodiles, snakes, lizards, jackals, rats, other
vermin, the leavings of other people P

342. Are there any seasons during whioh the use of speoial
articles of food is forbidden P

343. Are suoh restrictions due to the desire to increase the
stock of suoh artiole of food or to superstitious or sanitary causes?

344. Is the use of certain articles of food restricted to women
or children, or to chiefs and persons of rank P

345. Are individuals or families prevented from eating certain
animals, and plants for superstitious reasons, such, for instance, as
their being the totems of the individuals or family ?

346. Does all the household eat together, or each person
separately, or is there a distinction of ranks, sexes, or ages P

347. Do men and women eat together ?

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348. Are there any ceremonies used at the commencement of
meals, such as offerings to the divinities, etc., or any religious rites
connected with them ?

349. Are there any marked peculiarities in the mode of eating

and drinking of the oaste, and how are these peculiarities

explained P

350. State what spirituous liquors, drugs, and narootics are in
ordinary use.

351. Are any of them connected with particular religious
ceremonies or festivals P

352. Are any of them supposed to have the effect of keeping
off malaria P

353. How is the use of spirituous liquors and drugs regarded
by the caste — for instance, is (a) drunkenness, (6) habitual indulgence
in opium or ganja looked upon as disreputable P

354. Customs of social intercourse . — What customs prevails as
to salutation P

355. Do they differ aooording to rank and relationship P

356. How do members of a family, friends and relations, and
strangers greet one another?

357. What special processes of oompliment and rules of prece-
dence are in vogue P

358. How are guests, women, and aged or infirm persons
treated P

359. What are the rules of hospitality as reoognized between
kinsfolk, neighbours, and strangers?

360. Are peculiar forms of language in use P

361. Are oertain words or forms of address used or avoided in
addressing oertain people P

862. Customs bearing on social status. — Name the lowest well-
known caste with which the oaste will (a) eat paki, (6) eat

kachhi, (c) drink, (d) smoke.

363. Name the highest well-known caste which will eat, etc.,

as in the last question with the oaste.

364. Is there any special article of food their abstaining from
which tends in their opinion to raise them above some other oaste
which does not abstain from it P

365. Mention any remarkable customs of the caste regarding
dress, ornaments, implements of handicrafts, fishing or hunting,
distinguishing marks, cutting of hair and beard, musical instru-
ments, dances, etc., which affeot their social status in relation to their
neighbours.

VI.— Occupations.

366. What do the caste believe to have been their original
occupation or group of occupations P

867. To what extent have they or any sections of them
departed from it P

368. Describe their present occupation P

369. If their occupation is that of —

(a) Artisans — What is their industry and in what special
material do they work, or abstain from working?

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(6) Hunter*. — Do they oatoh game or vermin P

(rf) Sveepers .— Do they remove night-soil or not P

370. Name any implement or mode of working which is
characteristic of the caste, and also note whether there is any form or
detail of their main occupation by abstaining from winch they
believe themselves to be raised above others of the same craft ?

371. Do they habitually prostitute their (1) unmarried, (2)
married women P

372. Does a change of religion, suoh as conversion to Maho-
m ©danism, or a joining a speoial seot of Hindus, usually involve
a ohange or modification of occupation on the part of the convert P

373. In cases where an hereditary oooupation is abandoned,
do the persons changing their oooupation change or modify their
caste name, and are their ties with those members who adhere to their
original oooupation in any way broken or relaxed P

V1L — Relations to Land.

374. To what dass of agriculturists do the caste or tribe
usually belong, e.g ., are they —

(1) Zamindars;

(2) Tenure-holders, specifying the kind of tenures they

hold ;

(8) Oocupanoy or non-ocoupaney raiyats, stating whether
they have or claim any privileges in respect of
rent;

(4) Nomadio cultivators, specifying the mode of cultiva-

tion they follow ;

(5) Landless day-labourers, stating the manner in which

they are paid P

375. Have they any legend or tradition accounting for the
position they occupy P

376. Have the caste any privileges in respect

of land, e.g., do they —

(a) hold at lower rates of rent than their neighbours ;

(5) hold a oertain proportion of their holdings rent-free ;

(c) receive a certain proportion of the produce of each
field or of particular crops in consideration of
any kind of service P

377. Do they hold any peculiar kinds of tenures ?

378. If so, have they any tradition accounting for the fact,
such as that they are the descendants of the first olearers of the soil,
of a former dominant raoe, or the like P

379. Do they claim speoial privileges in respect of land on the
strength of traditional affinity to, or supposed oontact with, the
ancestors of the local zamindars?

380. Have they any hereditary right to perform certain ser-
vices or receive oertain fees P

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381. Is it supposed that the ancestors of the looal zamindars

were members of the caste or tribe, and do they now

admit this, or deny it P

382. Are there any traces among the caste or tribe

of village communities, or of a communal organization embracing
groups of villages ?

383. Give all details that can be ascertained on this subject,
or if the organization has already been described in print, quote the

reference. . . . .

384. Does the system preserve its vitality, or is it dying out r

385. If the latter, state from what cause.

386. Are there any traces of the periodical redistribution of
common arable land among the members of seotions of the com*
munity ?

387. If the communal organization has now fallen into disuse,
oan any trace of its previous existence be found in the character of
distribution of the tenures now held by the caste or tribe P .

388. Are there any restrictions upon the order in which oertain
fields are to be cultivated or certain crops sown ?

389. Do communal rights of pasturage exist, or are they
asserted over land which is private property ?

390. Among hunting, fishing or wandering tribes does any
apportionment of land or water exist between the divisions of the
tribe, each division oonfining its operations to the traot allotted to it,
and does the apportionment extend to the individual members of the
division P

391. Does this custom obtain even where the land or water
apportioned is not the property of the tribe P

Sources of infoimMition.— -Here should be noted the names, resi-
dence (village and thana), profession, caste, sub-caste, and section of
the persons who answered the questions. If any of them ar eghataks,
genealogists, heads of caste panchayat , or occupy any hereditary
offioial position in relation to the caste, the fact should be stated. If
the answers to the questions have been derived from any source
other than personal enquiry addressed to members of the caste
concerned, the source should be stated, and suoh references given
as may enable the offioer in charge of the enquiry to test the correct-
ness of the answers.

Dbnzil 0. J. Ibbbtson.
John G. Nespield.

H. H. Rislby.

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APPENDIX III.

MB. DENZIL IBBRTSON'S MEMORANDUM ON ETHNOLOGICAL
INQUIRY IN THE PANJAB.

1882.

Memorandum for guidance in collecting Ethnological Notes*

N.B. — Proper names and vernacular words should be very clearly and
correctly written, and in vernacular as well as in English characters, if
possible.

1. Caste or Tribe— Clan — Locality — Taksil — District. — This
information should always be given at the head of the note regarding
the people from whose statements the note is compiled ; and if they
belong to a single village, it should be named in case of further
inquiry being needed.

It is often difficult to deoide what should be entered as the caste.
Many clans, for instance, are called Jats in some districts and Raj p tits
in others. A mere tradition of R&jpfit origin, even though admitted
by the Rdjptits of the neighbourhood, is not enough to warrant their
being entered as Rajputs, though the tradition and the fact of its
admission should of oourse be stated ; for a caste will often claim
Rdjptit origin, while readily admitting that they have lost the status
which their ancestors enjoyed.

The real question is whether they are, for practical purposes, looked
upon and treated as Rajputs at the present time by admitted R&jpiits of
the neighbourhood . The same test applies to claims to be classed as
Path&ns, Qoresbls, &o., Ac. The olaim, however, should always be
noted, together with the considerations which may lead you to hold
that it is inadmissible.

In any case the name by which the people are best known and
most commonly spoken of among their neighbours, generally that of
their olan, should always be prominently noted.

2. Distribution. — It is useful to state whether the particular
caste or clan is numerous in the tahsil; where their local head-
quarters are; and if few, where they are to be found in larger
numbers. The provincial bead-quarters, if any, should be named.
The people will often tell you that they hold 27 villages in this and
84 in that tahsil, and so on, giving the old traditional number of
villages rather than the number as they now stand. 8uch statements
shomd be recorded.

3. Subdivisions . — The various grades of tribal subdivision to
whioh the people belong should always be stated : for instance, they

* I need hardly say that I am indebted for many of the notes in this memorandum to
the suggestions of friends who have been kind enough to help me in its compilation.

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should be described as belonging to the A family of the B elan of the
G tribe of the D raoe or caste. And especially it will be useful to
give the traditional number of subdivisions of the tribe or dan under
disoussion, and to detail the names of as many of them as possible, as
these names often appear in the census papers with nottiing to indicate
to what tribe they belong, and in such oases the barest list of names
would be most valuable to me.

A tree showing the local subdivisions of a caste or tribe is always
exceedingly useful, and should be aooompanied by a detail of the
vernaoular terms used to denote the various degrees of subdivision ;
such as zdt 9 got , a/, jad, pdl , muh(n 9 thok, movi 9 siUan , kuldevi , cam,
bolak, tuman 9 pdro 9 phalli , sat, khel 9 8fc ., Sfc.

In the case of menial castes, it should be noted whether the name
of their subdivision is the same as the clan name of the villagers
whom they serve, or of the prevailing agricultural olan in the
neighbourhood, or in the part of the country whence they came.

4. Synonyms —

(a) If the caste or dan is known by more thano ne name, all

should be given ; as Jhinwar and Kahdr f Juldha and
Pdoli. So, too, if the name varies with the religion ; as
Chuhrd for Hindu, Musalli for Musalm&n ; and Mazbi
for Sikh sweepers ; Mahra for Hindu and Sikh, and
Jhinwar for Musalman Kahdrs ; Rdngar for Musalm&n
Bijpfits, and so on. It should always be noted whether
the synonyms are co-extensive or not; whether, for
instance, the term Hangar is applied to all Musalm&n
Rdjputs, and to them only, or not.

(b) Too great caution cannot be exercised in accepting

synonyms. To the educated and twioe-bom Native,
every vagrant is a Nat 9 every outcast a Chhhrd or Diim 9
and so on. The real test is whether, for instance, the
same individual will call himself Jhinwar and Kahdr
indifferently ; whether a Hindu Chuhrd would be oalled
on conversion a Musa Hi ; whether a Juldha from the
east would, on settling in the west, be recognized as a
Pdoli; whether the people themselves acoept and
reoognize the identity. Mere identity of origin is not
sufficient. For instance, Pardchas are said to be .
converted Banyas ; but no Banya could now become a
Pardcha by conversion ; the caste is closed to outsiders,
and has become separate and distinot.

questions of this sort For instance, some say that
Jhimcar and Machhi are identical ; and that all Malldhs ,
Bhatydras, barbhunjas, and Ddyas are Jhinwar by oaste,
these words being the names of occupations only, and
not of castes. Taking Malldhs only, the test questions
would be something of this sort. Are there any Malldhs
who never were Jhinwars ; would a Jhinwar , on first
taking to work as a boatman, call himself Jhinwar 9 or

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Malldhj or both indifferently P What would his son oall
himself P What would he oall himself if he reverted to
working as a porter or village water-carrier or cook P
Would he ordinarily marry a Mallah woman (1) while
still working as a porter, (2) while working as a boat-
man, and vice versd ?

( d) Where the oustom of the neighbourhood forbids marri-
age out of the caste, freedom of intermarriage is the
best possible test of identity. But this is often not
available. As to the general question, see section 21
below. Questions of this sort are the most difficult
which have arisen in the classification of census figures,
and a thorough examination of them is much needed.

5. Origin or foundation of caste . — The tradition as to the
origin or foundation of the caste or clan, though often absurd, should
always be given, together with any faots which may seem to bear
upon its probable truth.

6. Place of origin and course of migration .— The ultimate plaoe
of origin, as stated by the people, should be reoorded, together with
such account as they may give of their subsequent stages. But
especially the name of the village or neighbourhood from which their
ancestors came direct to their present locality should always be
stated, as this last can generally be relied upon, and enables us to
trace them back, step by step, in their wanderings. It will often
be found that they still make periodical pilgrimages to a plaoe of
origin, there to worship at a satti, or at the shrine ( jathera ) of their
common ancestor.

The plaoe of origin of their Parohits and Nals will often be
a guide ; and it is useful to know where their family genealogists
( Bhdty Jdga , Chdran , Mirdsi) live, and to what caste and religion
they belong. These men should always be got hold of and examined
if possible, as they are the repositories of all the traditions of the
tnbe.

The number of generations sinoe immigration is often known, or
can be got from the genealogioal tree, and is useful as approximately
fixing the date of arrival.

The people generally have a tradition as to who held the village
or locality before their ooming. These traditions often throw light
on past movements of tribes, and should be examined into and
reoorded over as wide an area as possible.

7. Religion —

(a) Should be stated ; and whether the same caste or clan
is found of more than one religion in the neighbour-
hood. Original Musalmdns, who came into India as
such, should be distinguished from those whose ances-
tors have been converted from Hindfiism. The latter
can often state who converted them, and when and
where. [It is important to ascertain whether their
conversion took plaoe before or after their settlement
in their present homes.]

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(6) The seot, where it can be discovered, should also be
stated. Whole villages of nominal Hindis or Musal-
m&ns are sometimes adherents of a Beet whioh practi-
cally eclipses the parent religion. It will often be
found that the people affect a particular gurii or pir
or guriidwara , and will be of the seot to whioh he or it
belongs (see further, section 20 infra ) ; especially
weavers, water-carriers, and other village menials are
often devotees of some saint or shrine, local or distant ;
and in such cases the fact should be noted.

(<?) It will generally be found that the peasantry worship
minor village deities and local saints far more than the
recognised gods of the Hindu Pantheon. Particulars
regarding worship of this sort are especially valuable.
The names, origin, and attributes of the deity, the
shape and aspect of the shrine, the days of the week or
year oonsecrated to him or her, the ceremonies observed
in worship, the nature of the offerings made, and the
class of people by whom they are taken, should be given.

(rf) It should be especially noted whether any of these
deities are peculiar to any particular sex, age, class,
caste or olan, or their worship specially affected by
them, or in any given locality.

( t ) It is not impossible that the minor deities may be dis-
tributable into two olasses, Aryan and Aboriginal, the
former being worshipped by all, and the offerings
made to them being pure and taken by Br&hmans,
while the worship of the latter is often largely confined
to women and children, and the offerings consist of
fowls, pigs, churmas, and other impure things, and
are taken by Jogis, Faqirs, Chuhras, and the like.
The latter class are perhaps more often malevolent
than the former.

(/) It should also be stated whether Sikhs or Hindus
worship the same deities at the same shrines or not ;
and it will often be found that Musalm&ns still worship
these minor deities of the neighbourhood, especially
their women and children .

(y) Customs forbidden, or not authorized by the nominal
religion, are of special importance, as, for example,
the worship of saints by Musalmans, and of Musalm&n
saints by Hindtis, the circumcision of females, and
the like.

(h) It is particularly important to note the cases where a
caste, though nominally Hindu, Sikh or Musalm&n, is
not recognized as such, and not admitted to a religious
equality, or to a participation in public rites and oeremo-
nies by others of the same denomination.

(*) Information regarding the religion and worship of the
outcast and vagrant castes, such as sweepers and the
various kinds of gipsies, is muoh needed.

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Snake-worship and tree- worship will he found in . full Vitality
in many parts of the provinoe, and traces of fire-worship and devil-
worship should be carefully looked for.

8. Fairs> Fast*, and Festivals. — These almost always have a
semi-religious significance, and are of great sociological interest. The
plaoes at which they are held, and the fixed dates on whioh they fall,
should be noted ; and the name, history, and attributes of the saint
or deity, if any, in whose honour they are instituted given ; if none,
the origin and significance attached to them by the people. It should
be stated what sex and age, what oastes or clans of people, and of
what sect or religion, principally attend or observe them ; what is the
nature of the offerings made, and who takes these offerings. A rough
estimate of the numbers usually attending a fair will be useful. Any
tradition connected with the occasion should be narrated, and all
rites and ceremonies observed should be minutely described.

9. Omens and Superstitions. — These are often peculiar to a dan
or a locality, and are always interesting for comparison with those
of other races. Divination ; sooth-sayers (bhagat sydna y 8fc .) ; witch-
craft ; the evil eye ; the release of animals or scapegoats during
epidemics ; [the use and nature of oharms, especially against small-
pox and cattle-plague] ; the sanctity of certain days, especially in
connection with homed oattle; auspicious and inauspicious days,
numbers, sights and events ; and belief in and propitiations of ghosts
{bMity pared , chkurel) and fairies ( n&ri shahpuri) are some of the points
on whioh information is needed ; as also the worship of ancestors
and the propitiation of those who die by violence (upgat) or childless
{gydl), the custom of building little platforms with cup-marks ( bhorka )
for their worship, the custom of heaping up earth (cf. the cairns of
Europe) in their honour, or in honour of some of the minor deities.

There is a large mass of superstitious oustom connected with
agriculture, such as the days on wnioh ploughing, sowing, reaping,
&c., must be begun, intermitted or finished; thorites observed or
invocations employed at their commencement or completion ; the
ceremonies attending ootton-picking, cane-crushing, winnowing and
division of grain, and commencement and completion of a well ; the
customary number of times which weeding should or should not be
performed ; the dimensions of wells and well-gear being measured
in so many and three quarter hands, and the like.

The number 5 and its aliquot parts* as 1±, 2$, will be found to
run through many of the superstitious, and even of the religious,
customs of the people.

10. Use of Brdhmans. — Musulm&ns often still retain and fee

the family Br&hmans, employing them especially at betrothals and
weddings, in casting horoscopes and fixing lucky names and dates,
and the like. This is valuable, as indicating Hind 6 origin. The
class of Brahman so employed should always be ascertained.

Some of the lower castes have a sort of outcast Brdhmans who
minister to them only ; and I understand that there are Musalman
Brdhmans (called Husenij who perform hereditary offices for their
converted clients. Any special order of priesthood of this sort should
be described. Most of the frontier tribes include Levitioal clans, who

12 a

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have the monopoly of priestly functions, and oooupy a position some-
what similar to that of Br&hmans among Hindis.

More information is needed about me different classes of Brah-
mans, as the Achdrj, Ddkaut , Giijrdti, fyc., what position they hold in
the saoerdotal ranks, what offerings they accept, what functions they
perform, and what is the origin of the distinction into classes.

11. Totemism . — Signs of reverenoe for some animal or plant
peouliar to the caste or clan will often be met with. Thus, some dans
will not eat or burn certain plants ; the women of others veil their
faoes before certain trees, as if in presence of an elder relative, or
worship them in hope of getting onildren, in the belief that the
spirit of the anoestor inhabits them ; others use or worship certain
plants at weddings and similar ceremonies ; and some castes oall all
their sons after plants. A clandestine marriage round a fire made of
certain wild plants, even though performed without the usual oere-
monial, is sometimes considered to be of a peouliary binding nature.
The clan name is sometimes derived from that of a plant or animal ;
and there is often a tradition oonneoting it with the clan and account-
ing for the reverence shown it. The people’s explanation of the clan
name, though often apparently absurd, should always be given.

12. Social Customs. — All social customs are exceedingly useful
in tracing ethnic affinities, as they are marvellously persistent. The
simplest method of recording them probably is to describe minutely
any set of customs or oeremonies as practised by the principal tribe of
the neighbourhood ; and, taking that as a standard, to note the points
in whion the practioe of other tribes departs from it —

(а) Differential customs, whioh are speoial to one tribe,

and differ from the custom of other tribes in the
neighbourhood, are most important of all.

(б) Birth customs ; the giving two names, one for every-day

wear, and one for oeremonial use ; the meanings of
names, often intended to deoeive or frighten the small-
pox goddess by depreciating or exalting the qualities of
the onild ; name-jingles or rhymes within the family,
perhaps marking the paternity in polyandrous fami-
lies ; the rites connected with the soalplook, puberty,
and outtings and offerings of hair in general, are all
interesting and often important. The period of oeri-
monial impurity after birth and death (siitak and pdtak)
should always be given, as they vary with the caste.

It will often be found that a Musalm&n tribe will have
identical marriage oeremonies with those of its Hindu
neighbours, with the single exception of the substitu-
tion of the nikdh for the pherd , or even the addition of
the former to the latter.

(d) Polyandry is practised, in a sort of half-reooffnized

manner, far more generally throughout the Panj&b than
is usually supposed. It may always be suspeoted where
the oustom is for the eldest only of a family of brothers
to marry. Other curious forms of marriage will also

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be found in certain parts, such as the infant son
marrying an adult woman who cohabits with the
nominal father

(e) It should always be stated whether the people burn or
bury their dead; if the former, where the bones and
ashes are finally bestowed ; if the latter, whether they
are buried lying or sitting, on the face or on the baok,
in a graveyard or at home; in both cases, in which
direction graves or shrines face. In the case of
menials, it should be noted whether they have a
distinct oustom proper to their oaste, or whether they
merely follow the custom of the village to whioh they
are attaohed, which will vary with the religion of the
villagers.

(/) All oustoms of committing corpses or ashes to local
streams or tanks should be noted, and the origin and
nature of the virtue these possess should be recorded.
This practioe is believed to be dying out in favour of
the more orthodox localities.

18. Earned . — It is of capital importance to know whether
a tribe practises karetci , or the remarriage of the widow, as the exis-
tence of this custom helps to fix both origin and social status. The
oustom exists in two forms, which must be carefully distinguished : —

(1) The Levirate, in which the eldest surviving brother of

the deceased takes the widow : this is either a remnant
of past or a token of existing polyandry.

(2) Where the existing restrictions upon marriage out of the

caste, &o., are relaxed in the case of widows, a
marriage with almost any widow being permitted.

It should be noted whioh of these forms is practised ; [and further,
what rule of inheritance is observed, especially under the Levirate :
whether, for instanoe, the son begotten of the widow by the younger
brother of the deceased inherits as the son of the elder or of the
younger brother.]

14. Inheritance —

(a) Minute details of the rules of inheritance do not gener-

ally bear upon our subjeot. But it is important to
know whether the tribe follows the strict Islamiolaw of
suooession, or whether their rules, by denying rights of
suooession to females, tend to keep property in the
dan.

(b) Primogeniture; equal division between sons; Pdgband

and CMndaband ; succession of sons during the father’s
lifetime ; distinctions between whole and half-brothers
on the father’s and mother’s side respectively ; succes-
sion of daughters ; and inheritance by the son-in-law of
a sonless father (gharjatc&l ), are all points which may
be usefully notioed, more especially when customs are
found to differ on any of them.

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(o) Any traces of inheritance through the female line, such
as inheritance by brothers or sisters, or by sister’s sons,
should be carefully reoorded.

(d) Traces of vesh, or the periodical redistribution by lot of
oommon arable land among the households or adults of
the community, are interesting.

15. Relationship and its incidents . — A table showing the terms
used for the various kinds and degrees of relationship, and the people
who are inoluded under each, will often throw valuable light upon
the ancient constitution of the family. It should be stated what
relations may not be mentioned either by name, or by the term for
the relationship ; as for instance, that a woman may not name her
husband, and that a man will not describe his brother-in-law (sdla)
as such.

The admission of strangers to inherit, the manner of and
restrictions upon adoption, the relations arising from and destroyed
by adoption, gharjavcal , and foster kinship, and by the oustom of
making bhumbhai , should all be noted.

Especially the relations whioh are created by marriage — (1)
between the woman and the members of the family she marries into,
(2) between the two families, are important. In the west of the
Panj&b a woman changes her clan ( got) by marriage ; in the east she
does not. It would be interesting to discover where the oustom
changes, and to note any facts bearing upon it ; as, for instance, the
custom of formal admission of the bride into her husband’s clan.
The functions which oustom assigns to sisters’ sons and husbands,
brothers’ wives, sister-in-laws’ mothers and similar relations, in social
oeremonials, such as marriage rites, are exceedingly interesting and
instructive, and need further examination.

Further facts bearing upon the importance of eating together
(con/arreatio) in oeremonies where a new relationship is created, are
needed. The custom often takes the form of a distribution of gur
or sweetmeats.

16. Intermarriage.

(а) It is specially important to disoover the limits within or

beyond whioh marriage is forbidden; for instanoe,
that a man must marry, in the first instance at any
rate, within the caste ; but must not marry into his
own, his mother’s or his paternal or maternal grand-
mother’s clan, nor a girl, of whatever clan, who lives
in a village marching with his own, and must not
marry two sisters ; or whether the prohibited degrees
of Islam are the only limitations observed. It is
important to know how far differences of religion or
sect are a bar to marriage.

(б) It is also of great importance [as throwing light upon

the possible mixed origin of some of our tribes and
clans] to know how the offspring of — (1) first mar-
riage, (2) karevci marriages, (3) illicit connexions
between parents of different tribee, castes or religions

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are now classed ; whether they follow the tribe and
elan of the father or of the mother, or are known by
an entirely new name ; and what distinction, if any,
is made between them and others who are bora into
the tribe and dan in a more usual or legitimate
manner.

being of oommon origin with themselves ; for instance,
the Desudl, Man , and Daldl Jats, the Mandhdr , Kan-
dhdr and Bargitjar Rajputs, and so on. Ties of this
sort should be carefully sought for and recorded.

(d) Castes and clans often refuse to, or are not allowed to,

intermarry with certain others on the score of sooial
status. In some cases wives will be received, but
daughters will not be given in marriage. It is useful
to give these particulars, as helping to fix the sooial
standing.

17. Social status . — This is denoted in three ways : —

(a) by the customs regarding intermarriage just referred to ;

(b) by the standing of the castes which will — (1) eat, (2)

drink, (8) smoke with them, the Brahmanical distinc-
tion between pakki roti , or dry food cooked in ghi, and
kachhi roti or food not so cooked, being noticed where
it exists. Thus, in some parts of the provinoe a Oaur
Br&hman will eat pakki roti from the hands of a Hindu
Jat, while he will not eat kachhi roti even from the
hands of a Sdrs&t Br&hman ;

(e) by the general oustom of the neighbourhood, which con-

demns certain oastes to live in separate quarters, drink
from separate wells, and so on.

18. Occupation. — The principal local occupations of the caste
should be specified. It will often be found that change of religion
affeots the occupation. Thus a sweeper converted to Isldm usually
ceases to remove night-soil, while a Sikh Chamdr will often leave
leather work and take to weaving. It is often the case, moreover,
that different clans pursue different branohes of the occupation
hereditary to the oaste. Thus some Ghosi dans keep cattle and sell
milk only ; others buy milk and sell butter.

Instances of abandonment of hereditary occupation should be
noticed, and whether in such oases the caste name is abandoned or
altered, and the ties with the original caste broken or relaxed (se$
section 21 below).

19. Minor peculiarities .

(a) Customs prohibiting or enjoining the eating or growing
of certain plants, as onions, turnips, indigo, &o., the
eating of flesh, drinking of wine, smoking, and use of
drugs, the use of vessels made of a particular metal or
of earth, or ornamented with stripes or otherwise,
often afford useful indications.

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(6) It will generally be found that the dress and jewels vary
with the religion, caste, clan and conjugal condition ;
especially as to the oolour of the olothes, red, blue,
whole or party-ooloured ; the use of drawers or petti-
ooats, dhotis or tdhmans ; the use of boddices ; of nose-
rings, small or large, of gold or of silver ; the use of
bracelets of silver or lao ; the oolour of the wrap and
of the head-dress ; and the general method of shaping
and wearing the garments and jewels. Customs regu-
lating personal adornment, such as tattooing, orna-
menting the teeth with gold, compressing the skull,
&o„ &o., are always valuable

(<?) Honorific titles peculiar to castes or dans should be
noted.

(d) Peculiarities of language will often point to place of
origin, and peculiarities of physique betray ethnic
descent ; but these two are very difficult to detect.

(s) Local songs, proverbs, and folk-lore often afford curious
and useful hints about custom, and are always interest-
ing and valuable. They should be taken down exactly
as spoken or sung, and not doctored to make them
oonform with grammatical rule or theory.

19a. Tribal and Village Organ ization . — Traces of tribal organi-
sation will generally be found, even where the tribe is now least
prominent. Some of the points to be noted are — the traot, often
called Thapa or Thamba , held, now or formerly, by the tribe or dan ;
the existence and organization of a tribal assembly or panehayat ;
how it is oonvened, and what questions it deals with ; whether its
constitution involves any rudimentary idea of representation, either
hereditary or elective ; the mode of selection of a tribal chief or
8arpanch ; whether he must necessarily belong to the head ( thika )
village or family ; how that village or family is determined, and the
privileges it enjoys ; how far the assembly or ohief represents the
body, so that the latter is bound by its or his aots, and how its or his
decisions are enforced ; what privileges the chief enjoys ; what dues
he receives ; what power he possesses over the land of the tribe, and
what share he owns in it, or whether he is the one tribesman who
has no share at all. The organization within the village should be
similarly described.

Belies of a now extinct tribal organization will sometimes be
found in the titles or sooial privileges aocorded to members of a
certain family ; and it is often the case that the organization which
has almost wholly died out among the land-owning communities,
survives in comparative integrity among their priests and menials,
whose panchaynts are organized upon the basis of the land-owing
tribe to which they are attached, while those who come from the
thika village enjoy oertain rights and privileges.

20. Sects and Ascetic Orders . — Seots are exceedingly numer-
ous, especially among Hindfis ; and new ones are constantly spring-
ing into existence. The various orders of faqirs are numbered by
hundreds, while the census papers show many such of which little

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or nothing appears to be known. The points most worthy of record
are — the name, date, and life history of the founder of the sect or
order; where its head-quarters are situated; peouliar tenets and
ceremonial practices whioh distinguish it from other seots or orders ;
what deities or saints are specially venerated ; peculiarities of dress, if
any ; what castes are admitted, what ohiefly enter, and whether caste
names, rules, and distinctions are recognized after entry ; the rites
used in admission ; whether any special occupations, odours, dress,
food, &o., are encouraged, prescribed, prohibited or discountenanced.
In the case of a new sect, the estimated number of followers, where
they most abound, to what classes they belong, and whether it is
spreading or dying out. In the case of an order, whether the faqirs
are celibate or not ; whether they are wholly wandering and indepen-
dent, or are attached to monasteries and have a system of internal
government ; what is their general character ; and what functions, if
any, they perform in the life of the people.

21. Trade-guild ». — These guilds appear to assume every form
intermediate between castes proper and the European trades-union.
Even true castes, such as that of the sweepers, where the occupation
is prescribed by birth, are, where they follow a trade, handicraft, or
menial occupation, generally governed by an elaborate panch&yat
organization. And this is almost always the case where the guild,
like, for instance, that of tailors, includes men of very different
castes.

In these cases the nature of the organization should be des-
cribed, the degree of control whioh it exercises over the members of
the guild, and the method in which it enforoes its decisions. Points
wormy of note are — whether they admit men of all oastes and
religions, and what oastes and religions usually enter the guild ;
whether the caste name is abandoned for that of the occupation,
either in the first instance or in the second generation, and whether
it is resumed again if the occupation is abandoned; whether the
different castes within the guild intermarry with each other, with
their own castes within the guild, or with their own oastes outside
the guild ; how far the oooupation tends to becom hereditary ; in
what degree the rules of the guild supersede or override those of
the oaste, and what happens when the two oonfliot. The titles of the
heads of the various guilds should always be given, as Mahtar , Raj>
Khnllfah , as they explain the mode of addressing followers of the
trade or occupation.

22. Formation of neto castes . — Any facts bearing upon the
origin or growth of new castes should be carefully watched for and
noted. It will sometimes be found that a tribe or family has lately
begun to affect a religious sanotity or a social exclusiveness beyond
that of its fellows, has ohanged or abandoned its former oooupation
in whole or in part, has adopted or relinquished the oustom of widow-
marriage, has excluded from or admitted to matrimonial allianoe
dans with whioh it formerly did or did not intermarry, and so on.
It is believed that instances of a olan or family whioh, a very few
generations ago, was undoubtedly classed as Jat, being now gene-
rally admitted as Rajput, and vice versd } or of ike descendants of

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186

a Jat grandfather having now, by virtue of mere change of occupa-
tion, become N6is or LohArs, and been admitted to caste privileges
by the other N4is or Loh&rs of the neighbourhood, are more com-
mon than is generally supposed. Nothing oan be more important
than a oareful record of the actual facts in such cases ; whether the
people in question have risen or fallen in the social scale ; how their
position in respect of intermarriage with other sections of the com-
munity has been affected ; whether they have adopted a new or are
still known by the old name, and so on.

23. Boundaries . — It is important to define, as far as possible,
the boundary whioh marks any change in religion, language, oustom,
or tribal distribution or nomenclature; such as the line at whioh
Khatris supersede Banyas or Aroras Khatris, at which BAgri take the

? laoe of l)ese Jats, KutAnas and Musallis of Chuhras, or Charhoas of
Ihobis and Chhfmpis, at whioh JulAha yields to PAoli, JAt to Jat,
Hindi to PanjAbf, Hinduism to Sikhism, at whioh the oustom ohanges
as to marriage within the caste but outside the clan, as to the heredi-
tary nature of occupations, or as to the change of a bride’s clan. The
limits within whioh dialects are spoken also stand in great need of
definition, though they are often by no means clearly marked. There
is very generally an intermediate or neutral zone, within whioh the
distinct dialects, tribes, or customs whioh prevail on either side of it
are to be found in a state of intermixture or transition. Such zones
should be defined as accurately aspossible.

24. Tracts . — It is useful to define the exact limits of the many
looal tracts into which the people themselves have divided the pro-
vince; such as the BAgar, the Nardak, HariAna, BhattiAna, the
Malwa, the MAnjha, the PawAd, the Bai wAt, the Bohi, the Jangal-des,
the Dogar-des, the DAman, the PaohhAd, and a hundred others.
These divisions are permanent ; and, unlike our artificially formed
districts and subdivisions, represent natural features, either physical
or ethnographical.

Information is also much needed regarding the limits of the old
parganahs , sarkdrs , siibahs and other ancient administrative divisions
of the country ; as in the absence of such information we cannot fully
understand the statements of the old historians whioh refer to these
divisions. The Sikhs often altered considerably the old units of
Mughal administration ; and it should always be stated to whioh of
these two dynasties the faots given refer.

25. Bibliography . — Much information on the subject of the
divisions of the people will be found in all the various Settlement
Beports; while their religious and social customs are treated of in
Mr. Lvall’s Beport on KAngra, paragraphs 66, 72 to 74, 112 to 119,
154, 160 to 169, in Mr. Barnes’ Beport on KAngra, paragraphs 253 to
294, in Captain Waterfield’s Beport on GujrAt, paragraphs 121 to
164, in Mr. Maoonaohie’s Report on Delhi, paragraphs 143 to 150,
in Mr. Channing’s Report on Ghirgaon, pages 34 to 37, and in my
Beport on KamAl (now passing through the Press), Chapters VI,
VIII, IX, and part of TIL Elliot’s Baoes of the North-West
Provinces of India, edited by Beames (London, Triibner, 1869, two
vols.. 8vo., prioe 36*.), is a store-house of valuable information ; as

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187

are a little book on the Domestic Manners and Customs of the
Hindus of Northern India by the Rev* Iahuree Dass (Benares,
Lazarus, and London, Triibner, 1866), Wilson’s Sketch of the Reli-
gious Seots of the Hindfis (Calcutta, Bishop’s College Press, 1846,
cost about 5*.)* and some of Colebrooke’s Miscellaneous Essays
(reprint of 1858, cost 6s.)

The constitution of the tribe and family can be studied in pages
t to c of vol. II of Mr. Tupper’s work on Panjab Customary Law;
and in the earlier pages of Mr. Wilson’s Code of Tribal Customs in
the Ghirgaon District (reprinted in the volume just mentioned).

The learner who is anxious to acquaint himself with some of the
published results of sociological research cannot do better than begin
with Sir John Lubbock’s Origin of Civilisation (London, Longman,
1870, one vol., 8vo., prioe 16*.) ; while the following are a few less
elementary works on the same and cognate subjects : — Tylor’s Early
History of Mankind (London, Murray, 1870, one vol., 8vo., price 12s.) ;
Tyler’s Primitive Culture (London, Murray, 1871, two vols., 8vo., prioe
24*.) ; MaoLennan’8 Primitive Marriage (London, Quaritch, 1876, one
vol., small 8vo., price 16*.) ; Morgan’s Anoient Society (London, Mac-
Millan, 1877, one vol., 8vo., prioe 16*.) ; Maine’s Village Communities
(London, Murray, 1872, one vol., 8vo., prioe 12*.); Maine’s Early His-
tory of Institutions (London, Murray, 1875, one vol., 8vo., price 12*.)

26. Finally , I would remind you that no notes ean possibly be
too fragmentary or too trivial to be worth sending me. Incomplete as
this memorandum is, a complete examination of even a single caste
in a single district with regard to all the points noted would be a very
serious undertaking. But it is only meant to suggest lines of inquiry,
some of which will interest one person and some another. Even bare
lists of clans and subdivisions, or a note that a certain single clan
belongs to such a tribe, will be most useful. And all details regarding
the customs of the people, however minute or apparently uninteresting,
possess great ethnological value ; and especially points in which the
customs of one people differ from those of another. For instance, a state-
ment which I have just seen that the temporary huts which the
B&warias build for themselves are circular in plan, at onoe suggests
the inquiry where the pattern was brought from, and invites compa-
rison with the bee-hive shaped tent of the nomad Mongols. It is
always well to test and confirm any information which has been
collected by inquiries from fresh individuals. But where this cannot
be done, the information will still be of great value ; for it can be
tested by comparison or by subsequent inquiry, while, if not noted
at once, it is lost. It is as well, however, in sending notes, to state
how far the information has been tested and supported by repeated
inquiry.

The primary distribution of the Pan jab peoples among the abori-
ginal inhabitants, and the several great waves of immigration which
have at different times swept into the country, can only be arrived at
by a minute comparison of their various social and religious customs ;
and the immense question of the growth and nature of oastecan only
be eluoidated by a study of the interned relations and economy of
existing castes. The habits of the vagrant and outcast classes afford

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188

an almost untrodden field for the one inquiry; the exceedingly
interesting and elaborate caste-organization of the menial oastes, and
of those numerous trade-guilds of whioh it is often so difficult to say
whether they are oastes or only occupations, affords equally unexplor-
ed material for the other. Work in either field, or indeed in any
cognate direction, will help on the inquiry into the early history of
social institutions which nas lately assumed such great interest and
importance. We in India have an inexhaustible store-house of facts
at our very doors, and unequalled facilities for ascertaining and record-
ing them. Every year sees some of the existing material disappear
under the powerful solvent of contact with European thought and the
applianoes of civilization. We are probably too near our subject to
generalise with suocess ; but we, and we alone, oan obtain the facts
from whioh generalisations can be made.

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APPENDIX IT,

LIST OP CORRESPONDENTS SELECTED TO TIRE PART IN THE
ETHNOGRAPHIC SURVEY OP BENGAL.

Division.

District.

Karnes of correspondents.

Midnapur

• • • 4

Baboo Bisseswar Baneiji.

„ Kali Narayan Boy.

The Deputy Inspector of Schools.

K. C. Ghosh, Esq.

Baboo Bajendra Lai Gupta.

The Executive Engineer, Cossye Divi-
sion.

Bardwan

W. B. Oldham, Esq.

Baboo Tara Prosad Ohatterji.

The 8ubdivisional Officer, Culna.
Ditto ditto, Cutwa.

Ditto ditto, Baniganj.

Baboo Jaga Mohan Bhattacharji.

Babdwah

Hnghli

■{

B. N. De, Esq.

Baboo Kedar Math Dutt.

The Subdivisional Officer, Jehanabad.
Baboo Aswini Kumar Bose.

Howrah

Baboo Bankim Chandra Ohatterji.
„ Prasanna Kumar Bose.

Birbhum

Baboo Bhuban Mohan Baha.
M. Warde-Jones, Esq.

, Bankura

H* "

Baboo Atul Chandra Ohatterji.

„ Guru Das Barman.

The Sub-Begistrar of Khattra.

Ditto of Kotalpur.

Baboo Haris Chandra Bai.

24-Pargan&s

Baboo Hem Chandra Kar.
Kumar Gopendra Krishna Deb.
Pandit Hara Prasad Sastri.

, Baboo Banga Lai MukharjL

Pebbibbnct ..."

w Calcutta

Dr. Bajendra Lai Mitra, CJ.E.
Jagannath Khanna, Esq.

Baboo Protab Chandra Ghosh.

„ Adya Hath BanerjL
T. H. Mukharji, Esq.

Baboo Protab Chandra Boy.

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190

191

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192

Division.

District.

Nunes erf correspondents.

Bhagalpur—
concluded .

Sant&l Pargan&s «

Baboo C. N. Gupta.

„ N. C. Banerji.
A. W. Stark, Esq.
Syed Nejabat Hossein.
. Bev. L. 0. Skrefsrud.

Patna

The District Snperintendent of Pobce.
Maulvi Majibar Bahman.

Syed Zahirnddin.

Baboo Bemala Cbaran Bhattacharji.

>t Sheo Nandan Lai Boy.

0. N. Banerji, Bsq.

Manlvi Wahed Uadin.

Gya ... |

Dr. B. Macleod.

Baboo Rajkishore Narain.

„ Badha Lai.

„ Sarada Prasad Ganguli.

Shahabad ... |

The District Snperintendent of Pobce.
99 8ubdivisional Officer, Buxar.

J. B. Hand, Esq.

The Subdivisions. Officer, Bhabua.

PATNA

Darbhanga

The District Magistrate.

„ Subdivisional Officer, Tajpur.

,, ditto ditto, Madhubani.

„ Sub-Registrar, ditto.

Maulvi Gownar Ali.

Baboo Dwarka Prasad.

„ Pramath Nath Chaterh.

„ Okhoy Kumar Chaterji.

Mozufferpur ... £

Baboo Bam Prakas Lai.
H. W. 0. CamdufE, Esq.

Saran ... ^

The Deputy Inspector of Schools.

A. Tytler, Esq.

Baboo Baghunath Bahai.

B. F. H. Pughe, Esq.

Champaran

The Deputy Inspector of Schools.

,, Sub-Inspector of Schools.

„ Canungo at Sudder Station.

W. B. Bright, Esq.

The Sub- Deputy Collector, Bettiah.
» Canungo at Bettiah.

Hazaribagh ... |

Baboo Girendra Nath Mitra.
Bai Jadu Nath Mukeiji.

Chota Nagpur

Lohardaga

Baboo Girindra Chandra Banerji.

„ Gagan Chandra Banerji.

F. A. Slack, Esq.

Baboo Rakhal Das Haidar.

C. A. G. Lillingston, Esq.

The Munsif of Palamow.

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